Ship And Shipbuilding

"SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING (see 24.867). - The period from 1910-21 was marked by great progress in shipbuilding; that progress was in some ways interrupted, in others stimulated, by the World War, which overshadowed every phase of development both in commercial and naval enterprise. The naval strengths during ten years after 1921 of the chief nations were restricted as a result of the decisions summarized in the article Washington Conference.

The great object of the Allied belligerents during the war being to obtain the maximum output both of war material and of merchant ships on which their supplies depended, those responsible for the building of all types of ships naturally turned their attention to standardization. This had the effect of retarding the adoption of new inventions on the one hand; but on the other the novel circumstances and continued development of material by Germany during the war, and the ruthless use made of that war material, continually called for novel devices and new types of ships to meet and defeat the continually changing and ever-increasing intensity of the campaign. This, whilst it produced many new types of warships and countless devices for their improvement in offence and defence, in the case of many classes of warships, but more particularly in the design of merchant ships, had the effect of developing standardized types, both in Great Britain and later in America, in order to increase the numbers of ships for transport purposes of all kinds and so counter the enormous losses due to the German submarine campaign. After the Armistice, although at first there was an enormous demand for ships of all classes, the slump in trade in 1920-1 and the very high prices of ships had the effect of reducing the demand. In Great Britain many of the warships building after the Armistice were broken up and no new ships had in 1921 been started. The output of merchant ships was in 1921 steadily declining, so that it could not be said that shipbuilding had yet resumed that steady advance which was being made before the war.

The outstanding features which have affected the design of all classes of ships specially are the gradual adoption of oil in lieu of coal as a fuel, the further development of the steam turbine, and, for certain classes of vessels, the progress made with internalcombustion engines (see Internal Combustion Engines).

In the British navy, and to a great extent in other navies, during this period, oil most completely superseded coal for steamraising. At first destroyers were the only type of vessel, apart from submarines, in which coal was altogether abolished as a fuel in the British navy. Then in 1912 light cruisers of the "Arethusa " class had oil only. A little later in that year, in the " Queen Elizabeth " class of battleships oil was decided upon as the only fuel for the first time in a capital ship. Subsequently to that, no British warship proper, with the exception of the " Raleigh " class of Io,000-ton light cruisers, which were destined for world-wide work, had anything but oil as a fuel, and in the " Raleighs " seven-eighths of the power was derived from oil. This change was a very momentous one to make, especially when it is considered that in Welsh coal Great Britain possessed the finest a+nd then the cheapest steam coal in the world. In spite of this, however, the advantages of oil were so great that, when in use it had been found satisfactory, coal was relegated to be the fuel of none but special or auxiliary ships in the navy.

The advantages of oil may be summarized shortly as follows: For the same weight it has 50% more thermal value than coal. It occupies less space and can be stowed in spaces inconvenient for coal and other stores. Boilers with oil remain much cleaner for a long period, so that full power can be kept up indefinitely as long as the fuel lasts. Oil can be easily taken on board at any time, thus not calling upon the crew for the great exertion involved in coaling ship hurriedly, perhaps just before their energies are required for fighting an action. The exertion of stoking is entirely done away with and far fewer men are required in the stokehold, which is always clean and comfortable. With oil also much larger boilers can be used, which saves space in the boiler rooms. Though there are other contingent advantages, those named are enough to show that the British Admiralty took a wise course in adopting oil for all fighting ships, and this was amply proved during the war.

Subsequently, owing to the very high price of coal and of wages for firemen, many of the advantages enumerated above induced merchant shipowners to adopt oil in place of coal for high-powered passenger vessels. In low-speed cargo-boats the great economy of internal-combustion engines as compared with steam-engines, makes the advantage of the adoption of oil still more paramount, and the number of these vessels has been largely increased. The comparatively low powers, however, which can be got with internal-combustion engines prevented their being adopted up to 1921 for fast merchant ships or for any warships, except submarines, which generally have comparatively low power and moderate speed. In submarines a much lighter internal-combustion engine than that used for cargo vessels has been developed, with a high number of revolutions.

Another very important advance in marine engines has been gained by the used of toothed gearing. This gear enabling the high number of revolutions in turbines to be reduced, so that large slow-running propellers can be used in conjunction with very quick-running efficient turbines, a much higher efficiency has been secured and increased speed of ship and economy of working has resulted. In its present form this gearing was first introduced in 1910 by Sir Charles Parsons in connexion with the turbine engines of a merchant vessel named the " Vespasian." The success of the trials of this ship led to the further adoption of gearing, and for the British navy it was first tried in destroyers, then in some light cruisers, and was in 1921 gradually coming into use for most war ships and many mercantile ships. The largest ship in which it had been adopted was H.M.S. " Hood." I. British Warships Taking the first most important type of British warship, namely capital ships, the naval actions in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 had demonstrated the capital importance of the heavy long-range gun, while the turbine system of propulsion had been sufficiently tested in high-speed passenger vessels and small warships to justify its adoption, at any rate experimentally, in warships of a larger size. These changes were, no doubt, bold ones, both as regards guns and machinery; but the wisdom of their selection for the design of the first " Dreadnought," in 1905, was sufficiently vindicated by subsequent experience, and by the general acceptance of these two features by other naval Powers.

Laid down in Oct. 1905, the original " Dreadnought " proved so successful that from 1907 onwards the designs of British capital ships moved on progressive lines without departing from the essential principle of the " Dreadnought " type, viz. a ship carrying an all-big-gun armament, adequately protected for taking her place in the line of battle, and of a speed at least equal to that of any foreign ship of similar rank.

The next io years therefore saw a succession of post- " Dreadnought " battleships in which the primary armament passed from the ten 12-in. guns of the " Dreadnought " through the ten 1 3.51n. guns of the " Orion " (all on the centre line of the ship) to the eight 15-in. guns of the " Queen Elizabeth," an increase, within that brief period, of over 126% in the heavy projectile weight of discharge. There was no secondary battery, properly speaking. The " Dreadnought " carried 24 12-pdrs. for repelling T.B.D. attack, but this armament was soon recognized as being too light for the ever-increasing size and power of destroyers, and in subsequent ships up to the " King George V." class (inclusive) batteries of 12 to 16 4-in. guns were mounted as high up as possible to repel the attack of destroyers. In the " Iron Duke " and " Queen Elizabeth " classes 6-in. Q.F. guns were substituted for the 4-in., as the latter weapon was then thought to be insufficient against destroyers and light cruisers.

The speed of these battleships was kept at the uniform level of 21 knots up to and including the " Iron Duke " class. The type of turbine machinery on four shafts, which had proved so satisfactory in the original " Dreadnought," became the standard, but the growth in displacement necessitated a corresponding increase in power to attain the requisite speed. The use of oil fuel in association with coal was maintained until the " Queen Elizabeth " class was reached, when the greater advantages of oil fuel and the improved methods of its combustion finally caused the abandonment of coal as fuel. A noteworthy feature of these remarkable vessels was the advance in speed to 25 knots, necessitating, on a slightly larger displacement than that of their predecessors, an increase of about i 5 o % in the power.

Concurrently with the development of the battleship proper, that of the British battle cruiser may be followed with advantage. Up to the inception of the " Dreadnought " design nothing more ambitious than an armament consisting of 9.2-in. guns associated with 7.5-in. guns (" Warrior " and " Minotaur," 1903-4) had been attempted in armoured cruisers. But the same reasons which caused the evolution of the all-big-gun battleships from the mixed armament of the " King Edward VII." and " Lord Nelson " classes now called for a similar simplification in the armoured cruiser designs. The outcome of this policy was the production of the " Invincible " class of " cruiser battleships," now generally known as " battle cruisers." In these vessels the additional power necessary for their 4 to 5 knots superiority of speed over the " Dreadnought " was obtained at the sacrifice of two 12-in. guns and some loss of armour protection. The value of speed, which in battleships had always been a debatable point, was, of course, incontestable for the battle cruisers, and the development of the type has, both before and since the outbreak of the war, kept pace with the insistent demands of the strategist for the highest speed obtainable. Within the 10-year period referred to above, the increase in speed and power from the "Invincible" (25 knots for 41,000 H.P.) to the "Renown" (32 knots for 120,000 H.P.) required an increase in displacement from 17,250 tons to 26,500 tons, the relative increase in power being over Igo per cent. Finally in the " Hood " a speed of 32 knots with 144,000 H.P. on a displacement of 41,200 tons, an increase of 235% in power was involved.

The wisdom of the policy which initiated this new era in naval construction, relegating temporarily into the background the former British supremacy in capital ships, was naturally the subject of much criticism. But evolution in warship construction is not the property of any one navy, and there is little doubt that, at the conclusion of the Japanese war, the world stood on the threshold of a new era in naval architecture. If British naval supremacy was to be maintained it had to be done by leading the world along the new path of warship design, without waiting for others to utilize the advantages that had been rendered possible by progress in armour, guns and machinery. How great an advance the " Dreadnought " represented on previous ships may be gauged from the particulars given in Table I.

[[Table I]]. - Comparison between. " Dreadnought " and the Best Previous Ships. Other navies were not slow to follow the lead given by Great I This includes pay, victualling, repairs, coal, stores, etc., together with an addition of 15% per annum of first cost, for interest and depreciation, etc Britain. The veil of secrecy in which the new types were closely shrouded whetted the emulation as well as the curiosity of other nations. Germany, ever ready to reap where others have sown, set about preparing for the change, and two years later produced the " Nassau " class, with 12 1 I-in. guns as main armament and 12 6-in. guns as anti-destroyer armament. At the rate of three a year she continued to lay down ships of this type - improved in armament as time progressed - each batch being accompanied by a battle cruiser of corresponding power and speed. Other nations fell into step, and, during the five or six years preceding the outbreak of war, produced, with variants appropriate to their several necessities, all-big-gun ships carrying a main armament of 10 or 12 primary weapons grouped in turrets shielding two, three, or even four guns each.

While the German output of capital ships had, once it got under way, continued with methodical regularity, British naval construction had suffered from the vagaries inseparable from divergent political views and aspirations.

Under the " Cawdor Memorandum " of Nov. 30 1905 it had been laid down that the minimum British requirements would be four large armoured ships a year, and the " Dreadnought " with the three " Invincibles " fulfilled this condition, but in each of the two following years only three battleships (and no battle cruisers) were laid down, while the 1908-9 programme only provided for one battleship (" Neptune ") and one armoured cruiser (" Indefatigable "). Efforts had been made to induce Germany to curtail her naval expansion - " a year's holiday in naval construction " being suggested - but such hopes as were based on this contingency gradually faded before the inexorable German determination to challenge British sea supremacy. In the 190 9 - 10 estimates provision was therefore made for laying down four capital ships, two in July 1909 (" Colossus " and " Hercules ") and two in Nov. (" Orion " and " Lion "), while four " contingent " ships (" Monarch," " Thunderer," " Conqueror " and " Princess Royal ") were to be laid down in April 1910, if the German menace showed no signs of abating. So far from this latter being the case, there was an acceleration in the dates of laying down the German ships, and the programme outlined above was therefore punctually carried out. The 1909-10 programme, it will be seen, was a memorable one in the history of British naval construction, and its adoption enabled Great Britain to maintain her naval supremacy, which otherwise would have been jeopardized.

Notwithstanding the atmosphere of uncertainty created by the delays due to hopes of a reduction of armaments, the rate of progress on warships under construction was well maintained, and, with a few exceptions, Great Britain was able to complete the largest battleships within 24 to 30 months of laying down, a performance which compared favourably with the best achievements abroad, and which not even Germany with her methodical preparations was able to equal.

The disposition of the heavy guns in both battleships and battle cruisers had, during the first five years of this period, undergone several important modifications. In the " Dreadnought," " Bellerophon " and " St. Vincent " classes the five two-gun turrets were placed as in the diagram: - A being on the forecastle deck, the remaining turrets on the upper deck, giving eight guns on each broadside, six ahead and six astern.

The " Invincibles," which carried one turret (X) less, had the two middle turrets P and Q disposed en echelon, and the superstructure amidships was so arranged as to enable all eight guns to fire on either broadside. The middle turrets were, however, placed so near to one another that serious trouble was experienced from gun blast when firing across the deck. In the battle cruisers of the " Indefatigable " class, and the battleships of the " Neptune " and " Colossus " classes, therefore, where a similar arrangement was adopted, the centre pair of turrets were spaced wider apart. A further change in the arrangement of turrets was adopted for the first time in these Dreadnought " (as designed) 10 Ratio [383,000 ,ft.-tonsI Ratio 1,785 £175,000 £ 34,800 21 5,800 4,000 Best Previous Ship 4 I to 2 l (1 45 ,000 ft. -tons I to 2.6 3,750 !'280,000 £ 62,300 19 5,790 3,000 Number of 12 -in. guns carried.. Length of line of battle for equal num ber of 12-in. guns on the broadside Total muzzle energy per broadside of 12-in. guns Length of line of battle for equal 12-in. broadside gun power .

Tons displacement per 12-in. gun.. First cost per 12-in. gun in line of battle. Annual upkeep of ship per 12-in. gun car ried.'. .

Speed (knots) .

Endurance: At economical speed (nautical m.) At 16 knots (nautical m.) .

battleships, where the after-pair were ' disposed at different deck levels to enable X turret to fire over Y. This arrangement, which now became the standard practice, while it introduced some difficulty in providing for stability, was economical of space, and simplified many of the gunnery problems connected with the ship; it gave, moreover, a higher gun platform for some of the armament.

While the offensive qualities of the battleships had continued to increase in successive types, the need for improved defence, particularly against mine and torpedo attack, had not been overlooked.

The adoption of protective bulkheads against under-water attack as carried out in the " Dreadnought " and subsequent capital ships was the outcome of the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese war. The Russian battleship " Tsarevitch," in particular, had been fitted with a protective deck which, instead of being continued to the side of the ship, was turned down in wake of the magazines, forming a heavy longitudinal bulkhead situated some distance from the ship's side. This protection had enabled her to resist successfully the explosion of several torpedoes. It was decided to incorporate in the " Dreadnought " design some under-water protection to the vitals. Within the limits of displacement available it was not possible to do more than protect the magazines and shell-rooms. These were given 2-in. protective bulkhead plating at the three centre-line turrets, and 4-in. protective bulkhead plating outside the two beam turrets, as the latter, being situated nearer the sides of the vessel, were consequently much more vulnerable.

In the subsequent " Bellerophon " and " St. Vincent " classes this side protection was developed in the form of a continuous longitudinal protective bulkhead terminated by protective transverse bulkheads completely boxing in the magazines and shell-rooms of the five turrets and the main machinery spaces enclosed between them. The thickness varies from t1 in. to 3 in. according to the distance of the bulkhead from the outer shell of the ship. In a vertical direction the bulkhead ran from the outer bottom to just above the lower edge of the side armour. In the " Hercules " and " Orion classes there was a reversion to the original " Dreadnought " system of isolated protection to the various compartments immediately below each of the three groups of turrets, the remainder of the ship's hull below water-line being unprotected. In the " King George V." and " Iron Duke " classes the under-water protection was extended by joining up the portions between the two foremost turrets to those below the centre turret, so that only the ends of the ship and something less than the middle third remained unprotected. Concurrently with the battleships this form of protection was also fitted in the battle cruisers, but limited to the magazines and shell-rooms.

Finally, in the " Queen Elizabeth " (the torpedo menace having increased) the continuous longitudinal protective bulkheads were once more incorporated, and with the transverse protective bulkheads at each end, girdling the ship throughout nearly her entire length, so that not only shell-rooms and magazines, but engineand boiler-rooms had the protection of a bulkhead 2 in. thick some to ft. from the ship's side, with the addition of another longitudinal bulkhead of 17 lbs. plating placed (at a distance of 7 ft. amidships and at varying distances at the ends) on the inner side of the protective bulkhead, further minimizing the risk of damage to the vitals of the ship from the effects of an explosion.

The arrangement of the protective bulkheads in the " Royal Sovereign " class generally followed that of " Queen Elizabeth," but their thickness was 11 inches.

The efficiency of this system of protection, which a series of experiments had established, was demonstrated at Jutland, and it was further improved upon by the later forms of bulge protection.

The construction of British battle cruisers had proceeded concurrently with that of the battleships, although in smaller numbers. The demands made upon the engineering staff to provide for the large increases of power already referred to involved many difficult problems, but the " Indefatigable " was nevertheless completed (in 1911) within two years of laying down, and the later ships, " Lion," " Princess Royal," " Queen Mary," and " Tiger," followed on in succeeding years, each marking some advance in power and speed. Two other battle cruisers of the " Indefatigable " type, viz. " New Zealand " and " Australia," built for the Dominions from whence they took their names, had also been completed and were available for reinforcing the battle cruiser squadrons.

When the World War broke out in Aug. 1914 there were, moreover, four capital ships building in England for foreign Powers - two for Turkey and two for the Chilean Government. The two Turkish ships had just been completed and commissioned, one at Armstrong's and the other at Vickers', and were on the eve of sailing when war was declared. As both vessels were subject to pre e mption in the event of war, the Government promptly took them over and added them to the British fleet under the names of " Agincourt " and " Erin " respectively.

Of the two Chilean ships building in England at Armstrong's, the "Almirante Latorre " (10 14-in. guns and 16 6-in, guns) was the further advanced, and she was taken over and renamed " Canada." She was completed in Sept. 1915. The " Almirante Cochrane " was taken over in 1918 for conversion into an aircraft carrier, being renamed " Eagle." There were thus at the outbreak of war the following completed capital ships on the offensive British list: The total armament comprised in the above completed ships was as follows: 134 13.5-in. guns; 162 12-in.; 60 6-in.; 360 4-in., of which 18 were anti-aircraft 3; 62 3-in. and 12-pdr., of which 38 were anti-aircraft; 46 6-pdr. and 3-pounder.

Of the older battleships, from the " Majestic " class (1895) onwards, the British navy possessed: These older ships, whose speeds ranged from 17 knots to 191 knots, comprised a total armament of 152 12-in.; 8 to-in.; 52 9.2-in.; 28 7.5-in.; 416 6-in.; 28 14-pdr., and 530 12-pounder. They were, of course, not in a position to meet modern " Dreadnoughts " on equal terms, but they compared favourably in offensive and defensive qualities with contemporary German warships, while being numerically in considerable superiority. They all rendered useful service during the war.

The old " Revenge," completed in 1894 (renamed " Redoubtable " in '914), the last available vessel of the old " Royal Sovereign" class, was commissioned and rendered useful service in the Belgian coast bombardments of 1914 and 1915.

In addition to the " Tiger " and the two remaining ships of the " Iron Duke " class which were approaching completion, there were five " Queen Elizabeths " in a more or less advanced state of construction, and five " Royal Sovereigns " laid down eight to ten months previously. The " Queen Elizabeth," being the farthest advanced, was pushed on with all possible speed, and by Jan. 1915 she was sufficiently completed to be commissioned and sent out to the Mediterranean, where she took part in the bombardment of the Dardanelles forts.

With regard to the design of British capital ships in the past, a most serious limitation had been the restricted width of the gravingdocks in Great Britain. This involved keeping the extreme beam of the ships within about 90 feet. Had wider docks been available, thus making it possible to have had a greater beam, the designs on the same length and draught could have embodied more fighting qualities, such as armour, armament, greater stability in case of damage, and improved under-water protection. This condition subsisted until the completion of the two big floating docks for Portsmouth ' and the Medway, the two locks at Portsmouth, and the large graving-docks at Rosyth; but the shortage of wide docks was a serious handicap during the war, and it was necessary to make use of the Gladstone Dock at Liverpool and the dock at Avonmouth.

1 Two more nearly complete.

2 One more (" Tiger ") nearly complete.

3 The anti-aircraft armament was not provided until after the outbreak of war, when such provision became necessary.

4 Portsmouth floating dock was transferred to Invergordon in 1914, and the Medway Lock to the Tyne in 1915.

Even in 1921 there was a great need for more British floating docks of the largest description. This was more especially apparent on the Clyde, where there was no dock, either floating or graving, which could take capital ships.

The German ships were not handicapped in this way, and most of their later capital ships had widths of between 90 and Ioo ft., which enabled them to carry more armour, and as far as it is possible to judge, they stood a good deal of battering without showing any lack of stability, while they proved to be good gun platforms, at any rate for work in the North Sea.

Immediately after war was declared great pressure was exercised to complete the ships then building for the British navy, and to order such other vessels as could be designed and finished in the shortest possible time. The view held in the early days that the war would only last a year necessarily coloured all that was done in the way of naval design and construction. Generally speaking, therefore, the construction of new battleships was ruled out. With the acquisition of the " Agincourt," " Erin " and " Canada," which were building in England for foreign Governments in private yards, and in view of the certain early completion of the remaining two vessels of the " Iron Duke " class, shortly to be followed by the vessels of the " Queen Elizabeth " class, Great Britain had a great preponderance of heavier capital ships, or Dreadnoughts, over the enemy; and as this class of ship takes longer to design and construct than any other, it was obviously a prudent course to concentrate on such types as were specially needed and could be built more quickly.

It should also be remembered that the menace of the submarine, which was from the first beginning to loom as a vital factor in the war, pointed in the direction of large numbers of patrol boats, torpedo-boat destroyers, and smaller types of vessels to deal with this menace. No time, therefore, was lost in placing orders for additional,British destroyers, submarines, light cruisers, sloops, mine-sweepers, patrol boats, etc.; and it very soon became clear that the Royal dockyards and the regular warshipbuilding contractors would not be able to cope with the mass of new construction that was required. Accordingly, orders for many of the last-named classes were placed with builders who had hitherto only been accustomed to mercantile work. With the arrangements that were made, however, for superintending and overseeing the work by the Admiralty, with the assistance of the registration societies-Lloyd's and the British Corporation very little difficulty was experienced in getting the work satisfactorily carried out by the firms new to this class of shipbuilding, and success attended the arrangements made.

Table II. gives the number and tonnage of vessels added to the British navy during the war. The total number (including other classes besides those in the table) was 1,513, of approximately 2,356,000 tons displacement.

[[Table Ii]].-British Warships Completed and Lost Between Aug. 4 19 1 4 and Nov. II 1918. Battleships.-To take ships added to the British navy during the war in the proper order, it is necessary to begin with battleships of the " Iron Duke " class. The particulars of Dreadnoughts built after the " Hercules " are given in Table III.

The " Iron Duke " class (see fig. 1), of which there were four, followed the " King George V." class, both in sequence of time and in general characteristics. The same main armament, similarly arranged, with the five turrets all on the centre line of the ship, was adhered to, the chief difference in the " Iron Dukes " being that instead of the 4-in. guns forming the secondary armament, a battery of 12 6-in. guns protected by 6-in. armour was finally decided upon. The protection also was somewhat increased over that of the " King George V.," involving an increase in dimensions over any previous British battleships. Two of the class were laid down in Jan. 1912 and two in May, the four vessels being completed in March, June, Oct. and Nov. 1914, so that two were ready just TABLE III.-Particulars of British Battleships. before, and two shortly after, the declaration of war. Four torpedotubes were carried in lieu of three in the previous ships, and after the battle of Jutland a considerable amount of additional protection was added over the magazines - a course which was practically adopted in all British ships at that time as a precautionary measure. Only in one case was any portion of a shell found to have penetrated below the protective deck; but with the ever-increasing range at which actions were fought, and the increasing penetration of improved shell, the danger of the decks being inadequate had to be considered. Special interest is attached to this class, as the " Iron Duke " was the fleet flagship during the whole time of Adml. Jellicoe's appointment as commander-in-chief, and she was in action at Jutland with her sister ships.

FIG. I.

The " Marlborough," it should be specially noted, was the only British battleship of the post-" Dreadnought " type struck by a torpedo during the whole war, and the value of the longitudinal protective bulkhead and of the subdivision and arrangements adopted was clearly shown, as the ship was able to remain in the line, no vital damage being done. She was afterwards safely docked in the Tyne and repaired. This is specially interesting, as many of the older ships, some with centre-line bulkheads and with other arrangements not so good for dealing with under-water damage, were sunk in the Dardanelles and elsewhere by enemy torpedoes.

FIG. 2.

The next type to note is the " Queen Elizabeth " class of the 1912-3 programme (see figs. 2 and 3). Three of these vessels, after taking a little more than two y ears to build, were completed in Jan., March and Oct. 1915. The other two were completed in Feb. 1916. A very considerable departure was made in the " Queen Elizabeth " from any previous " Dreadnoughts," the 15-in. gun taking the place of the 13.5-in., and the designed speed being increased by 4 knots over previous " Dreadnoughts," whilst the secondary armament was similar to that of the " Iron Dukes," consisting of 6-in. guns. Their very great increase of speed involved more than doubling the H.P. of the " Iron Duke " to give the 25 knots desired, and the great increase in the weight of the 15-in. guns and mountings over the 13.5-in. meant accepting only four turrets with eight 15-in. guns, as against five turrets with 10 13.5-in. guns in the previous ships, and even so the armament was considerably heavier. The further great departure from previous practice in battleships was the adoption of oil only as the fuel. This necessitated special arrangements of the oil bunkers, many of which were 30 ft. in height, and required special construction to withstand the head of oil. The armour and protection were fully maintained as compared with previous ships, but all these additions involved increasing the displacement to 27,500 tons.

In the battle of Jutland the Fifth Battle Squadron, consisting of four vessels of this class, were heavily engaged for several hours, and although they inflicted and sustained heavy punishment, especially in the case of " Warspite," all the vessels gave a splendid account of themselves and were not seriously damaged or put out of action. After the battle of Jutland additional protection was added to the magazines. The oil fuel proved a complete success in the stress of war conditions, it being found easier to keep up a high sustained speed, with the smaller complement carried.

It should be noted that Sir Philip Watts was responsible as. Director of Naval Construction for the design of the " Iron Duke " and " Queen Elizabeth " classes, thus completing a series of 27 battleships of the " Dreadnought " type designed and built during his tenure of office at the Admiralty - in addition to the large number of battle cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and other vessels built during that period - truly a great record.

Following the " Queen Elizabeths " came the " Royal Sovereign " class of the 1913-4 programme (see figs. 4 and 5). These were the first capital ships built by the Admiralty to Sir Eustace d'Eyncourt's designs, he having succeeded Sir P. Watts in Aug. 1912. These vessels were to have the same armament as the " Queen Elizabeth," but as there was some question about the supply of oil fuel when the design was discussed, it was decided to revert to coal, and also to accept the slower speed of 21 knots, which would make them more homogeneous with other " Dreadnoughts." Subsequently, when the vessels were in process of construction and the great advantages of the use of oil fuel with other types of warships became apparent, it was decided to change from coal to oil, so enabling increased power, giving a speed of about 23 knots, to be obtained. When fully laden with about 4,000 tons of oil, the " Revenge " attained 22 knots, which was equal to about 23 knots in the designed load condition. A somewhat different disposition of deck and side armour was also adopted by which the thick protective deck at the FIG. 4.

centre of the ship was brought up to the level of the main deck; this portion of the protective deck being thus well above the level of the deep load line, and giving more protected freeboard in the damaged condition than on any of our earlier battleships. This was an important feature, as a somewhat reduced metacentric height was decided upon for these ships with a view to making them steadier gun-platforms than some of the ships with more initial stability. The vessels were provided with good under-water protection, which was later reinforced by adding outside bulge protection. This was done to " Ramillies " before her launch and to the other vessels of the class after they had been in commission some time. The addition of " bulges " was suggested first by Sir E. d'Eyncourt originally for the " Edgar " class, for which this form of protection was added in 1914 after experiments had been made. The results proved the efficiency of the bulges.

The three battleships taken over by Great Britain from foreign Governments were of different types. H.M.S. "Agincourt" (see fig. 6) was commenced in Sept. 1911 for the Brazilian Government, from designs got out under Mr. Perrett at Elswick, but modified by Sir E. d'Eyncourt in Rio Janeiro, where he was then representing the Armstrong firm, before his appointment at the Admiralty. The Brazilian authorities, after much discussion, decided upon 14 12-in. guns, twin-mounted in seven turrets. This involved a ship with a length of 632 ft. between perpendiculars and 670 ft. over all. The main armour was somewhat lighter than that of British " Dreadnoughts " and in other respects, such as fuelling facilities, the ship hardly came up to the British standard. However, she was well reported on, and the 14 big guns were liked by the gunnery officers, who preferred a large number of guns for their salvoes. Certain alterations had to be made to fit her for the British service, but in the main she was left as designed.

It should be mentioned that in 1914 the " Agincourt " was transferred by Brazil to Turkey and she was on the point of leaving the Tyne for Constantinople when, on the declaration of war, she was taken over by the British Government.

The design of the " Erin " was settled by three firms, Armstrong's, Vickers and John Brown, in consultation with the Turkish authorities, for whom the vessel was built, being commenced in 1911. In general characteristics she more nearly followed the " King George V." class than any other British ship, except that the secondary armament consisted of 6-in. guns, as in the " Iron Duke " class. This vessel also was taken over by the British Government in Aug. 1914, and certain modifications made to fit her for the British service. In respect of quantity of fuel carried, the " Erin " was below the standard adopted for vessels designed for the British navy.

? _ The third ship taken over from a foreign Government was ordered and commenced in 1911 at Elswick from designs prepared at Elswick by Mr. Perrett for the Chilean Government. There were two ships of the class, the " Almirante Latorre " (which became H.M.S. " Canada "), and the sister ship the "Almirante Cochrane " (now H.M.S. " Eagle "). The " Canada " had io 14-in. guns, twinmounted, in the centre line, and was originally designed to have 22 4.7-in. as the secondary battery, but this was subsequently altered to 16 6-in. guns. The protection again was somewhat lighter than that of the British " Dreadnoughts," but the speed was rather higher, viz. 224 knots, and as a matter of fact this speed was considerably exceeded on trial. The ship was taken over by the British Admiralty in Sept. 1914, and completed, after certain necessary modifications, a year later. Her fuel consisted of coal, with the addition of a certain amount of oil, as in most British battleships. In 1920 the " Canada " was returned to the Chilean Government under her original name.

The sister ship, " Almirante Cochrane," remained in an uncompleted condition on the stocks at Elswick till early in 1918, when she was taken over by the British Government and rearranged as an aircraft-carrying ship. She was renamed H.M.S. " Eagle," and as a compliment to the U. S. navy, she was, at the request of the Admiralty, launched by Mrs. Page, the wife of the then American Ambassador to Great Britain.

Battle Cruisers

As regards the British battle cruisers later than the " Princess Royal," particulars are given in Table IV. The " Tiger " was included in the 1911-2 programme and followed on the " Queen Mary," the general features of the two ships being much alike, the chief differences being that the secondary armament of " Tiger " is 12 6-in. guns in lieu of 16 4-in. in " Queen Mary," and " Tiger " has two submerged torpedo-rooms, whereas " Queen Mary " had only one.

The " Tiger " was laid down at Clydebank on June 12 1912, and completed in Oct. 1914. In common with so many ships completed during the war, the early commissioning and joining of the fleet was so imperative that no exhaustive trials in deep water were carried out, but the runs made on the Polperro course showed that the designed power of 108,000 S.H.P. could be obtained with little difficulty, corresponding to a speed of 30 knots. In the early stages of the design the oil-fuel capacity was very largely increased from 1,000 tons originally intended to a maximum oil stowage of 3,480 tons, in addition to the 3,320 tons of coal.

FIG. 7.

At the commencement of the war two additional battleships of slightly modified " Royal Sovereign " type, viz. the " Renown " and " Repulse " (see figs. 7 and 8), had been laid down, but in view of the long time it would take to complete these ships, the construction was not pressed forward. Immediately after the battle of the Falkland Is., in which the British battle cruisers " Invincible " and " Inflexible," in company with other smaller cruisers, annihilated Von Spee's fleet, the value of the battle cruiser type became very apparent, and on the initiative of Lord Fisher, then First Sea Lord, it was decided to stop the construction of " Renown " and " Re pulse " as battleships and to alter the design completely into that of very fast battle cruisers. given about Christmas Instructions to redesign these ships were 1914. The new design had to give a speed of 32 knots, with the largest number of big guns possible for such a vessel, and with protection similar to that of the " Invincible " class. A modified form of bulge was adopted in these ships to give additional under-water protection against torpedo attack. After the war further additions were made to the bulge protection and to the armour.

The general outline design was completed and approved in ten days, and 6 is-in. guns adopted as the main armament, the secondary armament consisting of 17 4-in. guns, of which 15 were mounted in five specially designed triple-gun mountings. It was necessary that the ships should be completed at the earliest possible date, and the " Tiger's " machinery was repeated with some additional boilers, with oil as the fuel, thus increasing the power to 120,000, which, with the extra length given to the ship, made it possible to obtain the desired speed of 32 knots.

Lord Fisher also insisted that the ships must be completed within 15 months - an abnormally short time for an entirely new design - this period of completion was not realized, although not greatly exceeded. By Jan. 21 1915 the two firms entrusted with the orders, viz. Messrs. John Brown and Fairfield, were supplied with sufficient information to enable them to proceed with the structure, and both keels were laid on Jan. 25, which was Lord Fisher's birthday. All the drawings and specifications were completed by April and the design finally approved in that month.

The arrangement of the whole ship, showing the protection, is given in fig. 7, the plating over the magazines having been considerably increased as a result of the Jutland fight.

Repulse was launched in Jan. 1916, less than a year from the laying down, and " Renown " was launched three months later. " Repulse " went through her commissioning trials early in Aug., and " Renown " followed one month later and was completed in September. The speed of " Repulse " on trial was over 311knots in the deep condition, and the " Renown " obtained 32.6 knots mean speed in the normal condition.

The construction of these vessels in a little over one and a half years from the first order to get out the design constitutes a record in design and construction of two such important vessels, and reflected great credit, not only upon the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors, but also upon the contractors and all concerned in the construction and completion of the vessels. In fact, the Admiralty conveyed their appreciation of this to Sir E. d'Eyncourt, the Director of Naval Construction, in a letter dated Sept. 1916.

The battle cruiser H.M.S. " Hood " (see figs. 9 and io), the latest addition up to 1921 to the capital ships of the British Fleet, was designed early in 1916, and had only just been ordered from Messrs.

J. Brown & Co. when the battle of Jutland took place. This great event naturally led to a revision of the design and in view of the damage which was then done to British battle cruisers and also to TABLE IV. - Particulars of British Battle Cruisers. the German ships of similar type, it was deemed advisable to increase the armour protection, if possible. As the result of very extensive investigations, it was found possible, by accepting a deeper draught and a slightly reduced speed, to add very considerably to the protection of the vessel as already designed, without otherwise seriously affecting the design of the ship as a whole. The alterations were of a very radical character, the armour belt being increased from 8 to 12 in. and the barbettes from 9 to 12 in.; and certain increases were also made in the deck protection. At the same time the eight 15-in. gun mountings had their design modified to admit of an elevation of 30 degrees, and certain other modifications were made, both in the torpedo armament and also in the arrangements for preventing the flash penetrating to the magazines - a form of protection which was elaborated for all British ships at this time. All these increases involved an additional weight of nearly 5,000 tons, the legend displacement of the " Hood " becoming finally 41,200 tons when carrying 1,200 tons of fuel; the ship then having a draught of 282 ft., and a draught of 312 ft. with full fuel load, viz. 4,000 tons.

The original length and beam of the ship were maintained as before. Some extra plating had to be provided on the decks for strength purposes, but the under-water protection against torpedoes was retained as in the original design. With the modifications made, the " Hood " when completed was by far the most up-to-date capital ship in existence.

The changes in the design and other circumstances militated against the quick construction of the ship, and it was about four years from the approval of the original design in April 1916 to the time of her completion, this being about double the time taken to build recent British capital ships, and nearly three times that taken to build the " Repulse " and " Renown." The modifications were, however, quite justified by the circumstances, and they made the ship a much more powerfully protected one, whilst increasing her displacement, and consequently the weight of material to be worked, to about 50% more than that of " Repulse " and " Renown." The main machinery of the " Hood," consisting of geared turbines to develop 144,000 H.P., has the largest power which has ever been put through gearing, namely, 36,000 H.P. on each of the four shafts. The machinery is placed in three engine-rooms, of which the forward one contains two independent sets for the outer shafts; the middle and after engine-rooms contain one independent set for each of the inner shafts. This power, which was designed to give 32 knots for the earlier design of 36,300 tons displacement, was expected to give at least 31 knots in deep water with 210 revolutions of the propellers, at a displacement of 41,200 tons for the " Hood " as built. The 24 boilers represented the small-tube type with forced draught, arranged in four boiler-rooms. Such boilers were first adopted for large vessels in the " Courageous " class. Oil is the only fuel used in " Hood." On trials on the measured mile the " Hood" obtained a speed of 32.07 knots with 151,000 S.H.P. at 42,200 tons displacement, and 31.9 knots with 150,000 S.H.P. at 44, 600 tons displacement.

It will be seen from the plan (fig. 9) that the main armament of eight is-in. guns was mounted, as in recent British battleships of the " Queen Elizabeth " and " Royal Sovereign " classes, in four turrets, all on the centre line, with very large arcs of training, the forward ones training to 60° abaft the beam, and the after ones to 60° before the beam. The anti-torpedo-boat destroyer armament consists of twelve 52-in. guns arranged on the forecastle deck and shelter deck. There are also four 4-in. anti-aircraft guns on the shelter deck aft. There are two 21-in. submerged torpedo tubes, each in a separate compartment forward, and four 2 1-in. abovewater torpedo tubes between the upper and forecastle decks; these above-water tubes being a further addition since the original design was made. The distribution of armour is also shown. The 12-in. belt had a length of 562 ft. and a depth of 9 ft. 6 inches. Above the main belt was a strake of 7-in. armour to the height of the upper deck, and above that again there was 5-in. armour between the upper and forecastle decks. The side armour all sloped outward from below, the shell being thus unable to hit the armour normally, so that the virtual thicknesses were somewhat greater. There was thick plating behind all the armour, varying from 2 in. over the greater portion to 12 in. and i in. elsewhere. The torpedo protection consisted of the bulge arrangement, with an outer compartment of air and an inner one specially strengthened with the necessary separating bulkheads, etc. This protection extended throughout the whole length of the machinery spaces and magazines, and it has been proved that it renders the ship as safe against attack from torpedoes under water as she is against gun attack above water. The oil fuel tanks are arranged along the sides, thus giving additional protection. The " Hood " was successfully launched in Aug. 1918 at Clydebank, the ceremony being performed by Lady Hood, widow of Adml. Hood, who lost his life whilst gallantly leading into action the Third Battle-Cruiser Squadron at Jutland. The launching weight was about 22,000 tons. As the other three ships of the class which were commenced had none of them reached the launching stage at the time of the Armistice, it was subsequently decided not to proceed with them, in view of the international conditions, and the " Howe," " Rodney " and " Anson " were accordingly scrapped.

As regards the general design of the ship, the " Hood " may be cited as an example of what can be achieved by 'going to a large size. Her design embodies the armament and armour protection of a first-class battleship, including also good under-water protecttion against torpedoes, and at the same time gives the speed of the fastest battle cruisers. This involved great length and displacement. The under-water bulge protection, which has entirely superseded the provision of torpedo netting, is additional to anything provided in pre-war " Dreadnoughts." In connexion with the size of the " Hood " and general considerations of design, it is interesting to note the chief characteristics of the " Queen Elizabeth " and " Renown." The " Queen Elizabeth " is a well-armoured ship of about 28,000 tons, with eight 15-in. guns and speed of 25 knots, while " Renown," of slightly less displacement, viz. 27,000 tons, though of greater length, is a vessel with 7 knots more speed than " Queen Elizabeth," but with only six is-in. guns against eight, and approximately about half the armour protection provided in the " Queen Elizabeth." The " Hood " has the same armament, viz. eight 15-in. guns, as the " Queen Elizabeth," armour protection fully equal to and, in fact, rather heavier in the aggregate than that of the " Queen Elizabeth," 7 knots more speed than the " Queen Elizabeth," which makes the speed about equal to that of " Renown," and in addition complete protection against torpedo attack.

FIG. I I.

Large Light Cruisers. - Early in 1915, as sanction was not given by the British Government for building more capital ships taking two years or longer to complete, while additional light cruisers had been already approved of, it was decided to build " Courageous " and " Glorious " (figs. i i and 12) on the lines of very large light cruisers mounting a few guns of heaviest calibre, so as to be able to annihilate any enemy light cruisers or raiders. They were to have light protection, similar to British light cruisers, and a speed of not less than 32 knots, the draught being restricted to about 22 ft., or about 5 ft. less than any existing battleships or battle cruiser carrying such heavy guns, the main armament of four 15-in. guns in two turrets, one forward and one aft, making them a match for any raider or light cruiser that might be encountered. At this time it should also be remembered that the armaments of ships, especially as regards heavy guns, had to be regulated by the guns and gun mountings which would be available or could be manufactured in a short time, and this condition applied to the 15-in. mountings which were adopted for these ships. The secondary armament consisted of eighteen 4-in. guns in six triple mountings, similar to the triple mountings of the " Renown " and " Repulse." The side armour consisted of 2-in. protective plating added to the 1-in. shell plating, and a thin protective deck was worked all fore and aft, hut this was considerably thickened over the magazines after Jutland. A modified " bulge " was arranged for, as in " Renown " and " Repulse." The machinery adopted for these ships was of the type fitted in the light cruiser " Champion." It consisted of a 4-shaft arrangement of geared turbines, the power being transmitted to the propeller shafts by double helical gearing. The eighteen boilers of Yarrow small-tube type were also similar to those of the light cruisers, and with all-oil firing a power of 90,000 S.H.P. at about 340 revolutions of propellers was aimed at. Such trials as it was possible to make showed that 32 knots could easily be obtained at the designed displacement, and on service this was actually exceeded.

It was intended that these vessels should be built in a y ear, or as near that as possible, but this was not realized, and the ships were both commissioned in Oct. 1916.

The " Furious " (see fig. 13), was similar to, but a modification of, the " Courageous " and " Glorious," having about the same length and the same machinery, but the form of midship section was somewhat different, having a more pronounced bulge and a simpler form of main framing and structure of the hull. The armament also was different; each turret, instead of having two 15-in. guns, was arranged to carry one big gun of 18-in. bore.

Early in the spring of 1917 the necessity for having fast aeroplanecarriers became very obvious, and it was approved to fit " Furious " for this purpose. This entailed the removal of the fore turret and making other considerable alterations. A large hangar was built on the forecastle deck, and a flying-off platform 160 ft. long was arranged on the roof of the hangar, which was designed to house about To machines. Later it was decided to remove the after-turret as well, and a flying-on deck 300 ft. long, extending from the funnel aft, was constructed. The secondary armament, which had consisted originally of II 52-in. guns, was retained, with the exception of one gun; the remaining io guns being rearranged. Four sets of triple 21 -in. torpedo tubes were fitted on the upper deck aft, and one pair each side on the upper deck forward.

After these alterations were completed, the ship was tried and commissioned in July 1917, a speed of 312 knots being obtained with 94,000 S.H.P. at 330 revolutions. From the speed point of view the great advantage of size and length is clearly shown in these ships compared to T.B.D.s, since with about three times the H.P. of a destroyer it is possible to drive a ship of nearly 20 times the displacement at the same speed. This in smooth water; in anything of a head sea the T.B.D.s are left behind altogether by the great ships (see Table V.).

Light Cruisers. - Following upon the previous light cruisers of the town classes, a very important departure was made in the light cruiser design in the programme 1912-3, when the "Arethusa " class (see fig. 14) was designed by Sir Philip Watts. The importance attached to speed was specially brought out in this design, and it was decided to install very powerful machinery of 40,000 S.H.P. and this could only be achieved by adopting engines and boilers closely approximating to those hitherto used only for destroyers.

In con j unction with high speed a good armament was provided, consisting of two 6-in. and six 4-in. guns, though in the original design the armament consisted entirely of 4-in. guns. The ship's sides up to the level of the upper deck were protected by a high tensile plating varying from 2-in. to 12-in. and I-in. in addition to the I-in. shell platin g. This arrangement of plating also greatly added to the strength and stiffness of the ship. Further particulars of the class are given in Table V.

The " Arethusa " and other light cruisers were in the action off Heligoland on Aug. 28 1914.

In the 1913-4 programme the " Calliope " class, slightly larger vessels than the " Arethusas," but with the same power, were decided upon, the designs being made by Sir E. d'Eyncourt. After considerable discussion regarding the merits of mixed or homogeneous armament, it was decided to give these vessels two 6-in. guns, both on the centre line placed aft, and eight 4-in. guns. The protection consisted, as in the previous design, of a belt with a total thickness of approximately 3 inches. Most of this class had practically the same machinery as the " Arethusa," but Parsons geared turbines were installed in two of them, the " Calliope " having four shafts and the " Champion " two shafts. This was at the time a very important experiment, the putting of 20,000 H.P. through gearing being a very bold departure from anything which had been hitherto contemplated. The final results obtained with " Champion " were, however, excellent, and she obtained a speed of 292 knots with 337 revolutions and about 41,000 S.H.P., this speed being slightly in excess of any of the other vessels of the class at corresponding displacement.

The " C " class are the first ships, other than battleships, to have superposed guns on the middle line, a sort of spoon-shaped bulwark being fitted to protect the crew of the lower - from the blast of the upper gun firing over them.

For the subsequent vessels of the " C " class reference should be made to the tables, which show a gradual growth in size and power of armament; " Ceres " class (fig. 14) finally having a length of 425 ft. and a beam of 43 ft. 6 in., and a normal displacement of about 4,200 tons. These vessels carried five 6-in. guns, all on the centre line.

FIG. 15.

The next class were the " D's " (figs. 15 and 16), the general arrangement and protection of which followed that of the " Ceres," except that six 6-in. guns were carried on the centre line instead of five. The power was only slightly increased in these ships over the previous classes, but the revolutions were reduced to 275, all these later classes having the twin-screw geared arrangement, and although the displacement of the " D's " increased to 4,650 tons, the additional length and the reduction of revolutions enabled the speed of close upon 30 knots of the whole class of light cruisers " C's " and " D's " to be maintained.

In addition to these light cruisers, which were all to Admiralty design, two vessels - the " Birkenhead " and " Chester " - built at Messrs. Cammell, Laird's for the Greek Government, were pur chased in 1915. These vessels were considerably heavier than the " C " class and more closely resembled the British " Chatham " class. They carried an armament of ten 52-in. guns. The boilers were modified to burn only oil in the " Chester," instead of coal and oil as in the " Birkenhead," and the resulting increase in power to 31,000 gave the former a speed of 262 knots.

Designs were prepared in 1915 of the " Raleigh " class (figs. 17 and 18), a considerably heavier type of light cruiser, more especially suited for ocean work in any part of the world. They were to have a speed of 30 knots and a large radius of action. Various armaments were considered, and it was finally decided to adopt an armament of seven 7.5-in. guns with twelve 3-in. (four being on high-angle mountings). Five of the big guns were placed on the centre line, FIG. 17.

and the other two were on the broadsides amidships. The bow. and stern guns were superposed, thus giving a fire of four guns, both ahead and astern, and six guns on either broadside. These ships were originally designed to burn oil and coal, but the coal-burning boilers were subsequently altered in three ships of the class to burn a larger amount of oil, the original power of 60,000 S.H.P. on a fourshaft geared turbine arrangement being thus considerably increased up to about 70,000 shaft horse power.

These vessels also differed from the light cruisers referred to above in having modified bulges as protection against under-water attack. The protective plating was similar to that of the other light cruisers. One of these ships, the " Cavendish," was altered into an aircraftcarrier, and renamed " Vindictive." Monitors (see Table V.). - The first vessels of this type to be added (or reintroduced) to the British navy were the three exBrazilian river monitors built by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., and taken over by the British Government in Aug. 1914, and renan ed " Humber," " Mersey " and " Severn." The particulars. of these vessels are given in the table, from which it will be seen that the armament consisted of medium-calibre guns, viz. 6-in. 'and 4.7-inches. These vessels, though designed for river service, did very good work in the war, both on the E.-African and Belgian coasts.

The need for vessels of the monitor type mounting heavy guns soon became apparent, and in Nov. 1914 it was decided to prepare designs of monitors of more substantial structure for sea-going service, but of light draught, with good protection and carrying some heavy guns, the light draught combining the advantages of being able to go close inshore and greatly reducing the risk of being struck by a torpedo.

The earliest design was that of the 14-in. gun monitors, four in number, which was commenced in 1914. Four twin-mounted 14-in. guns and mountings were available, and with the very simple form of structure adopted, these vessels were designed and built in six months. They were quickly followed by the 12-in. monitors, which were of similar design but carried pairs of 12-in. guns, taken from older battleships. These vessels were also built in about six months. They all had a complete bulge of a form which was of simple construction, with an air space outboard and a water space between that and the ship proper.

Following on the 12-in. monitors, early in Jan. 1915 two more vessels were ordered, mounting a pair of 15-in. guns. For these ships, internal-combustion engines, which were well under way, but designed for another purpose, were installed. These vessels were named the " Marshal Ney " and " Marshal Soult." In Sept. 1915 two improved 15-in. monitors were ordered and named the " Erebus " and " Terror " (figs. 19 and 20). These were of finer form, of more horse power and a speed of 14 knots.

Following the earlier is-in. monitors, some much smaller vessels, each carrying a 9.2-in. gun, were designed, and others again which carried 6-in. guns. A good many of both large and small monitors went out to the Dardanelles in the early part of the war, and did very good work, and for a long time they seemed to bear a charmed life, as they enjoyed complete immunity from torpedo attack. Later, however, the " Erebus " and " Terror " were both torpedoed; the latter received three torpedoes, two hitting forward of the bulge with severe damage resulting; the third, which hit the bulge itself, did very little damage. The former ship was hit full amidships by a distance-controlled boat carrying a very heavy charge, but the bulge gave her complete protection and both ships were quickly repaired. It is interesting to note in this connexion that some of the old _ .. .__...._ ._.,, n:,punnllu?nmGM?ii ??e nm mmiuinn m uimmnunnamm?nm.v ????

or.

Table British Light Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, etc. British cruisers of the " Edgar " class, which had had bulges added to them early in the war, were torpedoed in the Mediterranean, but the bulge gave them complete protection. They were taken to port and repaired. In fact, no bulged ship struck by a torpedo was sunk.

On the heavier monitors it may be remarked that of all ships carrying heavy guns these vessels were probably more often in action off the Belgian coast and elsewhere than any of our heavygun ships, and they no doubt gave the enemy in occupation of that coast a very anxious time.

Destroyers and Flotilla Leaders (Table V.).-With regard to the development of British destroyers and flotilla leaders during the war reference may be made to the tables and plans (figs. 21, 22, 23 and 24). These vessels gradually increased in size and power, and war requirements continually added to the weights which they had to carry, including considerably more fuel, heavier armament both of guns and torpedoes, depth charges, larger bridges, and other additions. In fact, some of the ships which before the war were 900-ton vessels, exceeded 1,000 tons towards the end. The introduction, however, of the geared turbine added enormously to the efficiency of the machinery and propellers.

During the war nearly 300 T.B.D.'s and flotilla leaders, which are simply a larger form of T.B.D. with improved accommodation, were added to the British fleet, and the whole class of these vessels was called upon to do continuous work often in heavy weather. They came through the ordeal with very few breakdowns of machinery or other parts of the ship, whilst the duties they were called upon to perform in combating the submarines, convoying, etc. were continuous and varied. Numbers of these vessels were built by firms who had never built a warship before, but the work turned out by them fully met the Admiralty requirements.

The flotilla leaders, with a deep load displacement of about 2,000 tons and an armament of five 4-in. or 4.7-in. guns, and with their very high speed, might well be described as fast scouts or thirdclass cruisers.

Patrol Boats (Table V. and fig. 25). - Patrol boats were specially designed to relieve the T.B.D.'s of some of their duties such as patrolling, submarine-hunting and escort work, for which high speed was not a necessity. They had to be as small as possible, consistent with keeping the sea in all weathers, with sufficient speed to run down submarines, besides having shallow draught and all top hamper kept low to prevent their being seen at a distance. Economy of fuel was also an important feature, and it was desirable to have them built of mild steel rather than high-tensile steel, in order to simplify the construction. Some were provided with a special hard steel ram, with which a considerable number of enemy submarines were sunk. The various features were combined in a vessel of something under 600 tons, with geared turbine engines of 3,800 H.P., giving a speed of over 22 knots, with 330 revolutions of the propellers. The boats had large rudder area and were cut up aft, so that they could turn very quickly upon the enemy - a most important feature for ramming purposes. They proved very valuable boats /AM 3 on service and did a great deal of work against the submarines in all weathers. They were armed with only one 4-in. gun, mounted in a commanding position on the forward superstructure, one 2-pdr. and two 14-in. torpedo tubes, and later it was arranged to carry depth charges. Their cost was, of course, considerably less than that of a modern destroyer.

Some of these boats were afterwards disguised to look like small mercantile craft - a device which also proved quite successful. Sloops and Mine-Sweepers. - On the outbreak of war it became clear that there would be a great demand for mine-sweeping vessels.

A good many coasting and cross-channel steamers were taken up for this purpose, but more were required, and it was decided in Dec. 1914 to build twelve single screw ships (fig. 26) of simple design to this end. With the view of hastening construction, it was decided to adopt mercantile practice as far as possible in both hull and machinery. The vessels, although of very fine form, were built of simple construction and under Lloyd's survey. The boilers were of ordinary Scotch type, and single screw machinery was provided.

FIG. 21.

In the end nearly moo of these vessels were built, and the armament, which at first was two 12-pdrs., was subsequently increased to two 4. in. or two 4.7-in. guns. A great many of these vessels were built in about six months from the order, and the first 36 averaged 25 weeks in building. They proved excellent sea boats, and were used not only for mine-sweeping, but also for submarine work and for convoying. At later stages some of these vessels were disguised as ordinary merchant ships. They were economical steamers, and were able to attain a full speed of 17 knots, with a H.P. of about 1,800 to 2,000 in the earlier, which was increased to 2,500 in the later, vessels.

Several of the vessels were mined, but although the damage they sustained was very severe, they kept afloat and were repaired. The Admiralty was asked to design and provide some vessels of this type for the French Government, and eight of these were designed by Sir E. d'Eyncourt and built for that purpose and armed with somewhat heavier armament than our own ships. The French Government were very satisfied with the vessels.

In addition to this, at a later stage, for sweeping in shallow water, some paddle mine-sweepers were designed at the Admiralty. These were 15-knot boats, with draught just under 6 ft. 9 inches. They did good work, but were of course not such good sea boats as the sloops. As there was some danger of mines getting under the paddles, a further design of twin-screw mine-sweepers was got out. These were vessels of about Boo tons and about 16 knots speed.

Submarines (Table V. and figs. 27, 28 and 29). - During the war the design of submarines was enormously developed. A very large number of these vessels were added to the British Fleet. There were some twelve different types, some embodying very special requirements and all being improvements on their predecessors. The Admiralty produced the fastest internal-combustion engined submarine in " J " class, which attained a speed of over 19 knots. As a still higher speed was wanted for fleet work, the " K " boats were designed with a surface speed of 24 knots. To arrive at this it was necessary to go to steam, and special arrangements had to be made for shutting down watertight the funnels, etc. However, all these difficulties were overcome.

It is an interesting point about these vessels that, besides the steam turbines for full speed on the surface and the electric drive when under water, they were provided with a Diesel engine for use just before diving or immediately after breaking surface, in order to quicken diving or getting away after coming up.

Although the Germans had the advantage of more power per cylinder in their Diesel engines, Great Britain produced submarines, faster and more heavily armed than theirs.

M. m. submarine was a monitor submarine armed with a 12-in. gun; she was an experimental boat, and proved quite successful.

" China Gunboats." - For use in Mesopotamia or for river work two classes of so-called " China gunboats " were designed by Messrs. Yarrow. The smaller of these vessels, 120 ft. long and of about moo tons, were constructed in Great Britain in such a way that the parts could be sent out to Abadan, where they were assembled, and the vessels reerected and completed under the supervision of Admiralty officers. Some of the larger boats 230 ft. long and of 645 tons, were completed in England and went out to Mesopotamia, where all of them were of the greatest service in that campaign. Most useful work was also done by motor launches and many other types.

Other Auxiliary Craft and Aircraft Carriers

The Admiralty was called upon to design many other auxiliary craft - notably some fast Fleet oilers which were able to carry 5,000 tons of oil and had a speed of 15 knots. There were also designed a great number of special smaller craft for all purposes, and a number of merchant ships were taken over and modified to meet diverse requirements.

The most important modifications were those made to vessels taken over and converted into aircraft-carriers, including " Cam fl „ " " " " " " „ panic, Ark, Royal, Engadine," Riviera," etc.; the " Furious " was also altered, and the " Cavendish " (now named " Vindictive ") was converted into an aircraft-carrier. The " Argus " (fig. 30) was originally built as a passenger mail ship of 20 knots, and was taken over and converted into an aircraft-carrier with complete flush deck, the funnels being carried aft in long horizontal ducts, discharging the smoke astern. The " Eagle " was taken for conversion into a large aircraft-carrier with a somewhat different arrangement, with the funnels and all deck erections included on an " island " on one side of the deck. Aircraft-carr y ing ships are in fact gradually becoming more important for the Fleet.

Altogether during the four years more than 2,000,000 tons were added to the navy, at a cost between £250,000,000 and £300,000,000 sterling, exclusive of modifications to auxiliaries. Reference to the navy estimates shows that the aggregate sum spent during the four years before the war on new construction amounted to approximately £60,000,000. In fact, during the four years 1915-8, more tonnage was built for the British navy than during the previous 25 years.

II. Navies Of Other Countries During the period 1910-20 foreign naval construction of all types generally followed the line of British designs, with one or two important exceptions which must not be overlooked.

The most important departure from the British practice was in respect of the number of guns mounted in the barbettes. Triplegun mountings for the main armament have been adopted by several nations, viz. France, Italy, Austria, Russia and the United States, while in 1914 the French began the construction of quadruple-gun turrets, but neither these turrets nor the ships for which they were intended have been completed.

The British example in regard to the adoption of turbine machinery for propulsion of the first " Dreadnought " battleship and battle cruisers was not followed by the other nations at once. In some cases, for example, Japan and the United States, sister vessels were built, one having turbine engines and the other reciprocating engines. Finally, however, turbine engines were almost universally adopted, while the United States made a fur e° Fr FIG. 19.

ther advance by the adoption of the electric drive. The first American battleship in which this was installed was the " New Mexico," and it was arranged for all subsequent vessels to be propelled similarly.

In the adoption of oil only as the fuel the British again took the lead, and up to Aug. 1921 this had only been followed by the United States. The German authorities had considered that their sources of supply were not sufficiently reliable to justify their depending on oil alone.

On the whole, therefore, it may be said that the designs, apart from the above features, of foreign warships did not differ essentially from the British types, as can be seen from the notes and tables which follow.

Of the minor navies, many of which depended on British or other foreign builders for the design and construction of their warships, little need be said, as with the war the development of their navies practically ceased, and some of the most important vessels, such as the battleships building for Chile and Turkey, were taken over for the British navy.

At the Armistice both the German and Austrian navies ceased to exist as factors in the general naval situation, all their principal ships being surrendered to the Allies, the great majority of the vessels being finally destroyed, either being broken up or used as targets, with the exception of a few of the less important units, such as light cruisers and destroyers, which were incorporated in the French and Italian navies.

Battleships (I) United States. - The first vessels of the " Dreadnought " type constructed for the U. S. navy were the " Michigan " and " South Carolina," launched in 1908. These vessels, carrying only eight 12-in. guns, were of about 2,000 tons less displacement than the " Dreadnought," and 2 knots slower than this vessel. The main armament of the U. S. vessels was disposed, however, in an original manner, constituting a bold departure in that they were all mounted on the centre line of the vessel in two superposed twingun turrets forward, and two aft, with large arcs of training on each beam. This arrangement of turrets gave an ahead and astern fire of four guns and a broadside fire of all the eight guns. The waterline armour belt was i I in. thick with 8 in. above. Cage masts constructed of a large number of steel tubes were fitted in these vessels and such masts have been fitted in all later U. S. capital ships and also in some of the earlier vessels in substitution of their original masts. The " Michigan " and " South Carolina " were propelled by twin screws driven by reciprocating engines, thus differing from the " Dreadnought." The next battleships built were the " North Dakota " and " Delaware," launched respectively in 1908 and 1909. These vessels were a considerable advance in size over their predecessors, being more than 60 ft. longer, 4,000 tons heavier, and two knots faster, while they carried two additional 12-in. guns. The io guns were mounted all on the centre line, the two turrets forward being superposed as in the previous class, while the three turrets aft were arranged so that one could fire over the other two, which were both on the same deck so that one could only fire on either broadside. The arrangement of guns thus increased the broadside fire but left the ahead and astern fire as before. The armour belt consisted of a tier of II in. at the water-line, with a tier of 8 in. above. The advance in speed involved an increase of 50% in the H.P. of the engines, viz. from 16,500 to 25,000. Turbines of the Curtis type were installed in the " North Dakota " for the first time in a U. S. capital ship, but the " Delaware " was fitted with reciprocating engines. An important departure in these vessels was the fitting of 14 5-in. guns as secondary armament in a battery amidships, protected by 5-in. armour.

The next pair of battleships, named the " Utah," launched in 1909 and the " Florida," launched in 1910, were enlarged " North Dakotas," but both had Parsons turbine engines of 28,000 shaft horse-power. The tonnage was increased to 21,800 tons on the same draught, and the speed remained practically the same. The length was increased slightly to 521 ft. and the beam to 88 ft. The main armament was the same in number of guns and arrangement of turrets as in the " North Dakota," but the secondary armament was increased to 16 5-in. guns, protected by 5-in. armour. The armour was practically the same as in the previous vessels.

The succeeding pair of battleships, " Arkansas " and " Wyoming," launched in 1911, were characterized by another large increase in dimensions, the length being increased to 562 ft. and the beam to 93 ft., while on the same draught as previous vessels the displacement was 26,000 tons. The engines were Parsons turbines of about 28,000 S.H.P., the speed being about 1 knot less than the " Utah," of the same power but 4,000 tons less displacement. The greatly increased displacement enabled 12 12-in. guns to be mounted in six twin-gun turrets arranged all on the centre line in three superposed groups, one group forward, another just abaft of amidships and the remaining group aft. The ahead and astern fire thus remained as in previous vessels at four guns, hut all 12 guns could be fired on either broadside. The secondary armament was 16 5-in. guns in a 6-in. armoured battery. The protection was generally similar to the previous vessels, the water-line belt and barbette armour being II in. thick. The turrets and conning tower were of 12-in. armour.

These vessels were the last U. S. battleships mounting 12-in. guns. The example of the British in fitting 13.5-in. guns in the " Orion " class was followed by the adoption of 14-in. guns in the next vessels laid down by the United States. These were the " Texas " and " New York," launched in 1912, the dimensions of which were slightly greater than those of the " Arkansas " and the displacement I,000 tons greater. Ten 14-in. guns constituted the main armament and was mounted in five twin turrets, arranged generally in a similar manner to the British " Orion," four guns firing ahead and astern and all io on either broadside. The secondary armament remained as before, 16 5-in. guns being mounted in an amidships batter y protected by 6-in. armour. The water-line belt was 12 in. thick with a 9-in. belt above it, and the protection generally was somewhat greater than that of the previous vessels. An important feature in these vessels was the return to reciprocating engines, which on a power of 27,000 gave the vessels a speed of 21 knots. The reintroduction of this type of engine was made chiefly to obtain greater economy at cruising speeds.

The next pair of battleships, " Nevada " and " Oklahoma," launched in 1914, were of slightly increased length and tonnage. The main armament was the same numerically as the " New York's," but was arranged in four turrets, two containing two guns each and the other two three guns each. The twin-gun turrets were superposed above the triple-gun turrets at each end of the vessels. The secondary armament of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma " consisted of 12 5-in. guns arranged in an unprotected battery farther forward than in previous vessels. Turbines were again adopted for the propulsion of the " Nevada," but reciprocating engines were fitted in the " Oklahoma." The reduced power of the machinery, viz. 24,800 H.P. of both vessels, resulted in a reduced speed of 201 knots.

The British example of adoption of oil only as the fuel for the " Queen Elizabeth " class was followed by the United States in the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma," the total quantity of fuel arranged for, however, being 2,000 tons, compared with 3,400 tons in " Queen Elizabeth." The saving in weight resulting from the adoption of triple-gun turrets and oil fuel enabled considerable additions to he made to the armour protection of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma." The belt amidships was 131 in. thick and extended from 82 ft. below to 9 ft. above the water-line. The conning tower was protected by 16-in. armour, this being also the thickness of the front plates of the twin-gun turrets, those of the triple-gun turrets being of 18-in. armour. The vessels are further distinguished from their predecessors in that only one funnel, instead of two, is fitted. The uptakes are protected by 132-in. armour.

The " Nevada " and " Oklahoma " were succeeded by the " Pennsylvania " and " Arizona " (fig. 31), launched in 1915, in which the dimensions were further increased and the displacement became 31,400 tons. The main armament was increased to 12 14-in. guns arranged in four triple turrets in two superposed groups forward and aft. The secondary armament originally consisted of 22 5-in. guns, but has been reduced to fourteen. The protection of the vessels was generally similar to that of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma," but the side armour was increased to 14 in. maximum. Turbine engines were fitted in both vessels of the class, the " Pennsylvania " having geared cruising turbines in order to secure economy.

The " New Mexico," " Idaho " and " Mississippi," launched in 1917, were similar in general design, protection, and main armament to the " Pennsylvania." The displacement was slightly increased to 32,000 tons. The main armament of 12 14-in. guns was again arranged in four triple turrets, with front plates of 18-in. armour, side plates 9 in. to 10 in. and roof plates 5 inches. The secondary battery of 14 5-in. guns was fitted a deck higher than in " Pennsylvania " and was unprotected.

The " New Mexico " was distinguished from her sister vessels by the adoption of electric motors for her propulsion, the other two vessels having turbines arranged as previously; she had two turboelectric generating sets of 11,400 kw. capacity installed, and this electric power was transmitted electrically to four motors of, nominally, 6,600 H.P., one on each of the four propelling shafts. These motors were reversible, thus avoiding, as in the ordinary turbine method of propulsion, the necessity for astern as well as ahead prime movers. The electric drive appears to have been successful, especially as the " New Mexico " was not originally designed for this method of propulsion; the accommodation for the machinery being obtained by modifications in the arrangement of the spaces provided in the original design for turbines, without affecting the other features of the design. The vessel was put through exhaustive trials with satisfactory results, a maximum speed of just over 21 knots being obtained at 31,200 H.P. on a displacement of 32,800 tons, with economical steam and fuel consumption. An advantage conferred by the electric drive at cruising ship speeds arises from the ability to obtain the necessary power from only one of the electric generating sets, which can thus be worked at nearly full power and therefore give very good efficiency. The " New Mexico " escorted President Wilson across the Atlantic, and on both eastward and westward voyages only one turbine generating set was used. The weight of the machinery was greater per H.P. than that of turbine machinery of about the same power in British warships, but it was considered that this was capable of improvement in the future, especially in the case of vessels intended from the outset to have the electric drive. The electric drive has been adopted for all succeeding U.S. capital ships.

The " Tennessee " and " California," launched in 1919, were practically repeats of the " New Mexico," the displacement being 32,300 tons. These vessels, however, have two funnels. Also a new system of under-water protection (which has since been adopted for all U.S. battleships) was introduced. This consists of five vertical longitudinal bulkheads extending parallel to the ship's side from the forward to the after magazines, thus protecting the whole of the vitals of the ship. The innermost bulkhead is about 17 ft. inboard, the other bulkheads being approximately equidistant from one another; the bulkheads next to the skin bulkhead and innermost bulkhead are all thin plating, the other three being of thicker plating; the middle three of the five spaces formed by this arrangement are utilized as oil-fuel bunkers.

In Aug. 1915 Congress approved the first building programme ever drawn up for the U.S. navy, according to which 10 battleships, 6-battle cruisers, 10 scouts (or light cruisers), 50 destroyers, 9 fleet and 58 coast submarines were to be added in three years to the U.S. navy, in addition to a number of auxiliary vessels.

The first battleships to be built under this programme were the " Colorado " (launched 1921), " Maryland " (launched 1920 and completed 1921), " Washington " and " West Virginia." The dimensions of these vessels are not greatly different from the " Tennessee," except that the displacement is slightly greater, being 32,600 tons, the H.P. of the electric propelling machinery being increased to 28,- 900 to maintain the speed of 21 knots. The chief departure in the new vessels was the adoption of 8 16-in. guns as the primary armament, arranged in four twin-gun turrets superposed in pairs forward and aft. The secondary armament consists of 14 5-in. guns. The armour protection is generally as in the " New Mexico " class.

? ' 'Ls- FIG. 32..

The remaining six battleships of the 1916 programme had not yet been launched in 1921. Their names are " South Dakota," " Indiana," " Montana," " North Carolina," " Iowa," and " Massachusetts " (fig. 32). They are a very great advance on their predecessors, being 684 ft. long, 106 ft. wide and displacing 43,200 tons on a draught of 31 feet. An increased speed, 23 knots, is aimed at, the electric drive being of 60,000 horse-power. The main armament is increased by 50%, consisting of 12 16-in. guns mounted in four triple-gun turrets, and the secondary armament comprises 16 6-in. guns. The torpedo armament was two submerged 21-in. torpedo tubes throughout all the battleships described in the fore going. In 1919 a second three-year programme was considered, to consist of 156 vessels in all, including a further batch of 10 battleships and six battle-cruisers.

(2) France

The French navy did not immediately adopt the single-calibre main armament, their first vessels, designed after the " Dreadnought " era had begun, being the " Danton " class, which resembled the " Lord Nelson " in armament, 12 9.4-in. guns being carried in addition to the usual 4 12-in. guns. They were about 2,000 tons heavier than the " Lord Nelson " and were fitted with turbines of 22,500 H.P., giving a speed of 20 knots. The first French battleships of the " Dreadnought " type were the " Jean Bart " class, launched in 1911 and 1912. These vessels, " Jean Bart," " Paris," " France " and " Courbet," were a considerable advance on the " Danton " class, being 546 ft. long, as against 481 ft., with increased beam and draught, and displacement of 23,100 tons. Turbine machinery of 28,000 H.P. was fitted, giving a speed of 20 knots. The main armament comprised 12 12-in. guns mounted in six twin-gun turrets arranged in two superposed groups forward and aft, with the remaining two turrets on the broadsides amidships. The ahead and astern fire was thus 6 guns and broadside 10 guns. The secondary armament was very numerous, consisting of 22 5.5-in. guns protected by 7-in. armour. The side armour was 104 in. thick, tapering to 7 in. at the bow and stern, the turret armour being also 104 in. thick.

The " Jean Bart " successfully withstood torpedo attack by an Austrian submarine in 1915, being struck well forward. Compartments were flooded, but the vessel proceeded under her own power to Malta, where she was repaired in H.M. Dockyard.

FIG. 33.

The next battleships built by the French were the " Bretagne " (name ship of the class) (fig. 33), " Lorraine " and " Provence," all launched in 1913, practically repeats of the " Jean Barts," except that the main armament consisted of 10 13.4-in. guns mounted in five twin-gun turrets, all on the centre line of the vessels, the usual superposed groups of two turrets forward and aft, the fifth turret being amidships. The secondary armament again consisted of 22 5.51n. guns, arranged slightly differently from the " Jean Bart," but this number was decreased after the war to 18, during a partial reconstruction when director-firing was installed on a new tripod foremast.

These vessels were the last battleships completed for the French navy, the completion of the five vessels of the "Normandie" class, launched in 1914 and 1915, having been abandoned, with the exception of the " Bearn," which has been converted into an aircraft-carrier. The " Normandie " class were designed to carry 12 13.4-in. in three quadruple-gun turrets, a unique arrangement. The four guns in each turret were arranged on two mountings, so that virtually they comprised two twin guns. The secondary armament was to have consisted of 18 5.5-in. guns. The machinery intended for these vessels was of an interesting type, consisting of a combination of turbine and reciprocating engines, the two inner shafts being driven by turbines and the two outer shafts by reciprocating engines, which alone were powerful enough to have given the vessels a speed of 16 knots, the full power of 35,000 H.P. being designed to give a maximum speed of 21 knots.

It was intended to have laid down in Oct. 1914 four battleships of the " Duquesne " type, but the outbreak of the war caused this intention to be abandoned. The vessels were designed to carry 16 13.4-in. guns in four quadruple-gun turrets, arranged in two superposed groups forward and aft. The displacement was to have been 29,500 tons, and, with combination turbine and reciprocating engine, a speed of 23 knots was anticipated.

It should be noted that during the whole war period the French Government dockyards, and many private yards also, devoted their whole capacity to the production of munitions of all kinds for the army; naval work being almost entirely relegated to the background.

No provision was made in the French naval budget for 1921 for the construction of any capital ships.

(3) Japan

The " Satsuma" and " Aki " were the first battleships built in Japan after the " Dreadnought " era had begun. They were a development of the " Kashima " class, and therefore resembled in type the