United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

From LoveToKnow 1911

UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, the official title, since the ist of January 1801, of the political unity composed of England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland. "Great Britain" was employed as a formal designation from the time of the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland in 1707. Although the name (which apparently had its origin in Britannia Major, the name given to the island to distinguish it from Britannia Minor or Brittany) had, in earlier times, been often used both by English and by foreign writers, especially for rhetorical and poetical purposes, it was not till after the accession of James I. that it became a recognized part of the royal style. Its adoption was due to the king himself, who was anxious to give expression to the fact that he was sovereign of the undivided island, and not only of England or Scotland. As early as 1559 the Scottish congregation had formally proposed 1 See also Britain; British Empire; England; Ireland; Scotland; Wales; &C.

Year.	Revenue.	Expenditure.	Proportion of per head. per head.
			s. d.
1861	70,283,674	72,792,059	2 8 io
1871	69,945,220	69,548,539	2 4 5
1881	81,872,354	80,938,990	2 7 I
1891	89,489,112	87,732,855	2 6 2
1901	130,384,684	183,592,264	3 2 10
1902	142,997,999	195,522,213	3 12 II
1903	151, 551, 698	184,483, 708 .	3 I I 6
1904	141,545,597	146,961,136	3 6 2
1905	143,370,404	141,956,497	3 6 4
1906	143,977,575	140,51 1 ,955	3 5 I I
1907	156,537,690	151,812,094	3 6 5
1908	151,578,295	152,292,395	3 5 0
1909	131,696,456	157,944,611	2 18 5

2 See Peerage. 3 See Representation and Parliament.

In separate articles throughout this Encyclopaedia the main subjects of interest in connexion with British institutions are fully dealt with; and it is only necessary here to give such details as are needed to supplement those given under the subjectheading. See Agriculture; Navy (also Ship and Ship-BUILDING); Education; English Finance; English History; Civil Ser Vice; National Debt; Police; Poor Law; &C. A separate section, however, is devoted to the army, the constitution of which in 1910 is described; the history is given under Army.

National Debt (q.v.).-The table on the preceding page shows the position of the national debt at quinquennial intervals during 1891-1910.

	Area A sq. m.	Population.
		1891.	1901.
England and Wales. .	58,324	29,002,525	32,527,843
Scotland	29,796	4, 02 5, 6 47	4,472,103
Ireland	32,531	4,704,750	4,458,775
Islands in the British seas .	302	147,842	150,370

Year.	England and Wales.		Scotland.		Ireland.		United Kingdom.
	(a)	(b)	(a)	(b)	(a)	(b)	(a)	(b)
1896	2 4 2 ,7 6 4	1 5 . 7	30,270	14-2	23,055	10-2	296,089	15.0
1901	259,400	15 -9	31,387	14.0	22,564	10'2	3 1 3,35 1	15 1
1906	26 9,734	1 5' 6	33, 12 3	14.0	22 ,557	10 '3	3 2 5,4 1 4	14'9
1909	260,2J9	14.6	30,092	12 . 3	22,769	10'4	313,120	13.9

Year.	English and Welsh.	Scottish.	Irish.	Total.
1895	112,538	18,294	54,349	185,181
1898	90,679	15,570	34,395	140,644
1900	102,448	20,472	45,905	168,825
1904	175,733	37,445	58,285	271,435
1905	170,408	41,510	50,159	262,077
1906	219,765	53,162	52,210	325,137

Area and Population.-The United Kingdom has an area of 120,651 sq. m., and at the census of 1891 had a population of 37,732,922 and in 1901 of 41,458,721. If the islands in British seas are included, the area is increased to 120,953 sq. m., and the population to 41,609,091. The main divisions are as follows: Vital Statistics.-The following table institutes a comparison between the birth-rates per thousand of the population in the United Kingdom and certain other countries, at intervals (so far as possible) of five years, adding the figures for other years in specific years when there was a marked fluctuation: The number of marriages (a) and the proportion of persons married per thousand of the population (b) are thus shown: Emigration.-The following table shows the number of passengers, distinguishing English and Welsh, Scottish and Irish, who left the United Kingdom for extra-European countries in 1895, 1900 and 1905, and the total for 1909, and in certain other years in which the numbers show marked fluctuations: In 1909 the total number to British dominions was 163,594 and the total number to other extra-European countries was 125,167.

		1881.			1886.			1891.		1896.	1901.	1905,	1906.
Russia in Europe Hungary Austria Germany Japan. .. ... . Holland Denmark . Switzerland UNITED KINGDOM ... .	47.8 42'9 37.5 37.0 25.6 35.o 32.2 29.8 32.5	(1882, (1882,	5 0.4) 38.9)	4 6.5 45.6 38.1 37.0 27.3 34.6 32.4 27.8 31.5	(1889, (1890,	3 0.2) 29.2)	48.8 42'3 38.3 37.0 26.7 . 33'7 31.0 28.2 30.4	(1892,	29.6)	49'7 40.5 38.0 36'3 30.0 32.7 30.5 28.1 29.0	47'9 37.8 36'6 35.7 32.7 32'3 29.7 29.1 28 o	- - 33'7 33.0 30.6 - - 27.4 -	- 36.0 - - - 30.4 28.5 26.8
England Scotland Ireland	33'9 33'7 24.5			32.8 32'9 23.2	(1890, (1890, (1890,	30.2) 30.4) 22.3)	31.4 31.2 23 I	(18 94, (1892,	2 9.9) 22.5)	29.6 3 0 4 23.7	28.5 29'5 22'7	- - -	27.1 27.9 23.6
Norway Sweden Belgium . France	30.6 29.1 31 8 24.9			31.2 29.8 29.9 23'9			30.9 28.3 30.0 22.6			30.2 27.2 29.0 22.5	29.6 27.0 29.4 22.0	- - - -	26.5 25.7 25.7 20.6

Occupations.-The following table shows the occupations of the people (excluding children under ten years of age) as The number of births in the United Kingdom in 1909 was 1,146,118, giving a rate per thousand of 25 5. * Not including Finland.

	1881.	1886.	1891.	1896.	1901.		1905, 1906.
						Denmark.. .	18.3	18.1	20.0	15.7	15.8	- 13.5
Norway. .	17.0	16.2	17.5	15.1	14.9	- 13.7
Sweden.. .	17.7	16.6	16.8	15.6	16. 1	- 14.4
Holland.. .	21.5	21.8	20.7	17'2	17.2	- 14.8
UNITED KINGDOM.	18.7	19.2	20.0	16.9	17. 1	- 15.6
England.. .	18.9	19.5	20.2	17.1	16.9	- 15'4
Scotland.. .	19.3	18.9	20.7	16.6	17.9	- 16.0
Ireland.. .	17.5	17.8	18.4	16.7	17.8	- 17.0
Belgium. .	21 2	21.3	21.2	17.5	17.2	- 16.4
Switzerland. .	22.4	20.7	20 6	17.8	18 o	17.9 -
Germany.. .	25.5	26.2	23.4	20 8	20.7	19.8 -
France. .. .	22.0	22.5	22.9	20.0	20. 1	- 19.9
Japan. .. .	18.7	24.4	21.0	21.4	20.4	22.0 -
Hungary. .	34'4	3 1.7	33.1	28.9	25-4	- 24'8
Austria.. .	30.5	29'5	28 I	26.3	24.0	25.0 -
Russia in Europe*.	33.2	31.2	34'6	32.8	32 1	- -

The death-rate is similarly treated: * Not including Finland.

The deaths in the United Kingdom in 1909 numbered 667,765, the rate per thousand being 14.8.

	England and Wales.	Scotland.	Ireland.
Professional .	804,427	101,061	131,035
Domestic .	1,994,197	201,230	219,418
Commercial .	1,858,454	245,715	97,889
Agricultural	1,152,495	237,311	876,062
Industrial. .	7,534,994	1,197,495	639,413

Percentage to total area	Great Britain.		Ireland.
of area-	1890.	1909.	1890.	1909.
Cultivated	57.7	56.6	73.1	70.3
Under grain crops. .	14 I	12.4	7'3	6 i
Under green crops.. .	5'8	5.4	5'8	5'0
Under grasses and other crops .	8.5	7'9	5'9	11-2
In permanent pasture.. .	28.2	3 0.2	53.4	43'1

Description of Minerals.	1900.	1909.	Value, 1909.
	Tons.	Tons.
Coal. .. .. .	225,181,300	263,774,312	106,274,900
Iron ore. .. .	14,025,208	1 4,979,979	3,689,777
Clay and shale.. .	14,049,694	14,067,810	1,718,056
Sandstone. .. .	5,019,874	4,600,084	1,339,106
Slate.	585,859	402,184	1,007,013
Limestone (not chalk) .	11 ,9 0 5,477	11,811,122	1,226,967
Igneous rocks. .	4,634,301	6,283,297	1,235,046
Oil shale... .	2,282,221	2,967,057	815,937
Tin ore (dressed)	6,800	8,289	617,376
Salt	1,861,347	1,822,744	548,896

distinguished in five great orders, according to the census of 1901: Agriculture.-The following table illustrates broadly the difference in the position of agriculture in Great Britain and in Ireland: Minerals and Mining.-The mineral production of the United Kingdom reached a total value in 1890 of £100,802,657 and in 1909 of £119,394,486, with a maximum during that period of £160,605,154 in 1900 and a minimum of £ 73,024,066 in 1893. These figures include pig-iron produced from foreign ores. About 73% represents the value of the coal output. The figures for the more important minerals are as follows: Gold ore, manganese ore and uranium ore are produced in small quantities, and the list of minerals worked in the United Kingdom also includes chalk, lead, alum, phosphate of lime, chert and flint, gravel and sand, zinc ore, gypsum, arsenic, copper, barytes, wolfram and strontium sulphate.

Description of Metal.	1900.	1909.
	- Quantity.	Quantity.	Value (average market price).
Iron.. .	4,666,942 tons	4,802,163 tons	15,559,253
Tin. .	4,268 „	5,199 ,,	695,546
Lead. .. .	24,364 ,,	22,463 ,,	298,945
Zinc.. .	9,066 „	3,818 „	87,146
Copper.. .	765 ,,	435 ,,	27,162
Gold.. .	14,004 oZ.	1,210' OZ.	4,400
Silver.. .	190,850 „	142,146 „	14,030

Metals were obtained from the ores as follows: The total number of persons employed in and about all the mines of the United Kingdom in 1901 was 839,178, and in 1909 I,126,372.

	Coal Mines, &c.	Metalliferous Mines (a).	Quarries (b).
England. .	606,206	19,561	60,725
Wales. .	137,124	7,333	17,277
Scotland .	114,294	974	12,187
Ireland. .	749	733	4,464

The workers were thus distributed between the three kingdoms and the principality in 1905: The total figures given above include (a) 550 and (b) 166 workers in the Isle of Man; and the figures quoted for production include that of the isle.

	1900.	1909.
England.	Tons.	Tons.
Cumberland	2,022327	2,309,370
Derby	15,243,031	16,869,347
Durham	34,800,719	41,240,612
Gloucester	1,578,386	1,486,526
Lancashire	24,842,208	23,705,387
Leicester	2,106,343	2,661,606
Monmouth	9,818,829	13,204,357
Northumberland	11,514,521	14,013,135
Nottingham	8,626,177	11,106,702
Somerset	1,046, 792	1,140,818
Stafford	14,222,743	13,517,101
Warwick. .. ... .	2,957,490	4,447,978
York `Vales.. .	28,247,249	35,896,623
Carmarthen	1,333,880	1,950,429
Denbigh. .. ... .	2,447,092	2,556,612
Glamorgan	27,686,758	34,461,631

The production of coal in Great Britain, though marked by, fluctuation, has, on the whole, largely increased, and in 1901 the output was 42% greater than that of 1881. The maximum quantity extracted in any one year between 1890 and 1910 was 267,830,962 tons in 1907, and the minimum 164,325,795 in 1893. The maximum estimated value, however, was £121,6 52,596 for the 225,181,300 tons raised in 1900; the value in 1907 being £120,527,378.

In the chief coal-producing counties of England and Wales the quantity raised in 1900 and in 1909 will be found in the table at the foot of preceding column.

Thus it appears that of the coal raised in England the county of Durham contributes about 22%, Yorkshire 17%, Lancashire 16%, Stafford and Derbyshire each about 9%, and Northumberland 7%; while of the coal raised in Wales 85% is contributed by the county of Glamorgan; and that the coal production of England and Wales together constitutes, in quantity and value, 85% of the whole production of the United Kingdom.

Year.	Tons.	Year.	Tons.
1890	30,442,839	1900	46,098,228
18 93	29,031,955	1905	49,359,272
1895	33, 1 0 1 ,45 2	1909	65,694,267

The export of coal greatly increased on the whole during the period 1890-1909. The following table shows this; the figures for 1893 are given as the lowest during the period. The tonnage of coke and patent fuel is included in the totals: The chief receiving countries are, in order, Germany, France, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Russian Empire, Denmark, Egypt, Holland, Argentina, Norway and Brazil.

The annual output of iron ore in the United Kingdom has on the whole decreased since 1882. In that year it reached a maximum of 18,031,957 tons; it then fell off to 13,098,341 tons in 1887, rose in the two years following to nearly 15,000,000, fell to little over 11,000,000 in 1892-1893, rose fairly steadily to 14,461,330 in 1899, stood in 1900 at 14,028,208 tons of a value of £4224,400, and then showed a further fall and rise, until in 1905 the tonnage was 14,590,703, and the value £ 3,482,184.

	1900.	1909.
	Tons.	Tons.
England. ... .	13,072,118	14,176,658
Cumberland 1. ...	1,103,430	1,246,228
Lancashire 1. .. ...	630,361	312,367
Leicester	750,708	514,896
Lincoln. .. .. .	1,924,898	2,037,363
Northampton	1,622,539	2,875,659
Stafford 2	1,084,797	902,565
York. .. .. .	5,550,677	6,234,589
Wales	7,418	38,043
Scotland 2. .. ..	849,031	697,276
Ireland. .. ... .	99,641	68,002

The iron ore raised in the various countries, and in the most productive counties, is here shown: The number of furnaces in blast (fractions showing the proportion of the year furnaces were in blast) was: in England 298162, Wales 19,; Scotland 852, total 403 i '. The total number of existing furnaces in 1900 was: in England 456, Wales 42, Scotland 106; total 604; so that 33% of the number stood unused. In 1905 furnaces in blast numbered: England 244, Wales 13, Scotland 87A z; total 345A z; and those existing: in England 412, Wales 31, Scotland tor; total 544; and the percentage unused was thus 36.

In 1888 the imports of iron ore amounted to 3,562,071 tons, in 1898 to 5,468,396 tons, in 1899 to 7,054,578 tons, in 1900 to 6,297,953 tons, in 1901 to 5,548,888 tons and in 1909 to 6,361,571 tons, of which the bulk was imported from Spain. The amount of pig-iron obtained found its minimum, during the period 1890-1910, of 6,976,990 tons in 1893, and its maximum of 10,183,860 in 1906, and in 1905 the quantity produced from foreign ores (4,847,899 tons) for the first time exceeded that produced from British ores (4,760,187).

The quantity of lead ore produced within the United Kingdom has decreased. It is now less than one-half of the output of about 1877, and the value has decreased more than proportionately. In the period1890-1908the maxi- Lead. mum annual production of metallic lead from British ore was 33,590 tons in 1890, valued at £449,8 2 6; the production fluctuated somewhat, but generally fell, to the minimum of 17,704 tons in 1902 (value £198,875). The most productive counties are Flint, Durham and Derby; the ore obtained in the Isle of Man is increased in value by the silver it contains.

These counties supply the richest ore in the United Kingdom.

In these cases the greater proportion of ore is from mines also producing coal.

The annual output of tin ore, which in 1878 amounted to 1 5, 0 45 tons, valued at £530,737, fell to 12,898 tons in 1881, though the value in that year rose to £697,444.

During the years1882-1892the average output was over 14,000 tons, and its average value about £770,000, but in 1893 a decline began in the output (not however accompanied closely by a decline in the value), slightly relieved about 1905.

Year.	Tin Ore.	Value.
	Tons.
1893	13,689	637,053
1900	6,800	523,604
1905	7,201	574,183
1909	5,193	617,376

Tin ore is obtained almost exclusively in Cornwall.

Like others of the less important mining industries, copper mining in the United Kingdom has declined. In 1881 the. output of ore amounted to 52,556 tons, in 1891 to 9158 tons, in 18 93 to 557 6 tons, in 1905 to 7153 tons, valued at £32,696 and yielding 716 tons of metal by smelting. The total tonnage of ore included 5757 tons from England (chiefly from Cornwall) and 1146 from Ireland (Wicklow, &c.). Copper precipitate is taken from water pumped up from old copper mines on Parys Mountain in Anglesey.

Zinc ore is obtained chiefly from mines in Cumberland, Wales and the Isle of Man. In 1881 the output reached 35,527 tons, valued at £110,043; in 1891 the output was only Zinc. 22,216 tons, but its value was £113,445. In 1897 the quantity was 19,278 tons, and the value £69,134; but in 1898 the price had risen so that the output of 23,552 tons was worth £117,784. In 1900 the output of 24,675 tons was worth £97,606; and in 1905 that of 23,909 tons was worth £139,806.

During the period1890-1905gold mines were worked continuously in Merionethshire. Notices of the discovery of gold elsewhere (as in the Forest of Dean, Argyllshire and Ireland) have appeared from time to time.

Year.	Ore.	Gold.	Value.
	Tons.	Oz.
18 9 0	575	206	675
1891	14,117	4,008	13,700
18 93	4,489	2,309	8,691
1895	13,266	6,600	18,520
18 9 8	703	395	1,229
1900	20,802	14,004	52,147
1902	29,953	4,181	14,570
1904	23,203	19,655	73,925
1905	15,981	5,797	21,222
1908	-	915	3,311

The principal fluctuations in production were as follows: It should be noted also that from imported cupreous iron pyrites, copper, gold and silver are extracted at some fifteen metal extraction works in Great Britain. From 386,858 tons of burnt ore in 1900 there were obtained 13,925 tons of copper, 1 777 oz. of gold and 3 0 9,4 86 oz. of silver; and in 1905 the figures were: ore, 402,863 tons; copper, 14,502 tons; gold, 1850 oz.; silver, 322,291 oz.

Year.	Imported.	Exported.	Retained.
	lb	lb	lb
1890	1,793,495,200	214,641,840	1,578,853,360
1893	1,416,780,064	224,621,488	1,192,158,576
18 95	1,757,042,672	203,284,592	1,553,758,080
1898	2,128,548,352	203,072,464	1,925,475,888
1900	1,760,206,672	215,747,168	1,544,459,504
1905	2,203,595,520	283,177,888	1,920,417,632
1907	2,386,901,104	330,352,064	2,056,549,040
1909	2,188,761,456	268,633,456	1,920,128,000

Textile Industries.-The most important of the textile industries of Great Britain is cotton manufacture. The quantities Cotton. of raw cotton imported, exported and retained for Cot consumption for various years during the period1890-1910were as follows: During the same period the minimum and maximum amount of raw cotton (in lb) imported into the United Kingdom from the principal countries whence it is exported was as follows: United States of America (1893), 1, 0 55, 8 55,3 60; (1898), 1,805,353,424; Egypt (1890), 181,266,176; (1907), 4 2 3, 0 5 2 ,44 8; British possessions in the East Indies (1898), 27,349,728; (1890), 2 3 8 ,74 6 ,7 0 4; (1909), 75,621,168;75,621,168; Brazil (1899), 5,4 6 4,59 2; (1906), 54,362,000; Peru (1891), 6, 1 75,344; (1909), 2 4,4 1 3,§4 8.8. In 1905 there were imported 7,941,920 lb from Chile (only 195,328 in 1909); 6,033,104 lb from Canada (this also fluctuates greatly; 1,801,072 in 1909); 1,241,408 lb from British West Africa (4,985,232 in 1909); 1,126,720 lb from the British West Indies and Guiana (3,022,208 in 1908).

According to the census returns of 1901 there were 546,065 persons employed in cotton factories, 199,920 male and 346,145 female. Of the total number of workpeople, 529,131 were employed in England and Wales, 14,805 in Scotland and 212 in Ireland. In 1907 the total had risen to 576,820 (217,742 males and 359,078 females).

Year.	Imports.	Exports of imported Wool.	Retained.
	lb	lb	lb
1890	633,028,131	340,712,303	292,315,828
18 95	775,379,063	404,935,226	370,443,837
1898	699,555,048	283,317,748	416,237,300
1900	558,950,528	196,207,261	362,743,267
1905	620,350,885	277,864,215	342,486,670
1907	764,286,625	313,519,282	450,767,343
1909	808,710,087	390,695,182	418,014,905

The extent of the woollen and worsted manufactures of the United Kingdom is indicated by the following table showing the imports and exports of wool and the quantity retained for use in various years (1890-19ò5):--- During the same period the minimum and maximum amount of wool (in lb) imported into the United Kingdom was as follows: Australia (1904), 220,483,961; (1895), 417,163,078; New Zealand (1890), 95, 6 3 2 ,59 8; (1909), 1 7 6 ,457, 1 5 0; British possessions in South Africa (1900), 32,219,369; (1909), 115,896,598; South America (1890), 11,173,692; (1908), 78,938,157; British possessions in the East Indies (1901), 24,069,571; (1909), 56,238,633; France (1890), 10, 8 73,7 88; (1902), 27,770,790; Turkish Empire (1908), 5,705,671; (1897), 25,727,462.

In the woollen and worsted industries 239,954 persons were employed according to the census of 1901, of whom 99,425 were males and 140,529 females. Of the total number 209,700 were employed in England and Wales, 24,906 in Scotland and 5348 in Ireland.

	England			United Kingdom.
	and	Scotland.	Ireland.			Total.
				Males.	Females.
	Wales.
Flax	4,493	2 3,57 o	71,464	29,226	70,301	99,527
Hemp, jute, &c. .	2,750	39,200	639	11,618	30,971	42,589
Silk	34,847	2,424	209	11,058	26,422	37,480
1-Iosiery	4 8 ,374	11,957	611	15,067	45, 8 75	60,942

The numbers of persons employed in the other principal textile industries in 1901 was as follows: Commerce.-British commerce received an enormous development after the first quarter of the 19th century. In 1826 the aggregate value of the imports into and exports from the United Kingdom amounted to no more than £88,758,678; while the total rose to £110,559,538 in 1836 and to £205,625,831 in 1846. In 1856 the aggregate of imports and exports had risen to £311,764,507, in 1866 to £534,195,956 and in 1876 to £ 6 3 1 ,931,3 0 5. Thus the commercial transactions of the United Kingdom with foreign states and British colonies increased more than sevenfold in the course of fifty years.

Country.	1890.	1895.	1900.	1905.	1909.
I. - BRITISH POSSESSIONS -	£	£		£	£
India and Ceylon Imports Exports	37,856,598 38,254,769	31,076,761 27,519,909	32,861,217 32,885,147	40540,341 45,796,432	40,995,633 46,617,909
Straits Settlements,Malaysia Imports	6,412,865	5,404,887	8,092,057	7,222,215	8,948,582
and Hong Kong. Exports 5	5,766,059	4,077,436	6,162,526	7,162,908	7,455,726
Africa. Imports ) Exports	11,290,022 10,744,904	12,522,366 13,325,089	9,703,086 16,725,092	14,755,353 21,338,292	13,130.724 20,181,408
Canada and Newfoundland 5 Imports	12,444,489	13,400,570	22,240,325	26,204,205	27,674,340
. Exports	8,272,743	6,594,903	9,659,238	14,267,967	18,750,970
West Indies, Bermudas,Hon- Imports	2,992,472	2,831,343	2,483,648	2,717,318	2,969,772
duras and Guiana.. Exports	4,262,669	3,230,189	2,954,477	3,324,665	3,777,244
Australia S Imports A	20,992,185	24,954,779	23,800,820	26,968,977	32,655,709
? Exports	281:374507:473005	15,867,979	23,545,565	19,476,463	27,207,430
New Zealand. 5 Imports Exports	3,705,428 8,383,058	3,443,688	11,615,881 5,899,292	13,391,222 6,994,806	17,730,556 8,081,422
Other } Imports t Exports	1,720,583 3,826,012	1,952,431 3,095,184	2,287,537 4,252,072	3,731,132 4,351,367	2,800,939 4,246,362
II. FOREIGN COUNTRIES -
France. S Imports 7 Exports	44,828,148 24,710,803	47,470,583 20,324,998	53,618,656 25,877,453	53,072,900 23,232,663	50,690,785 31,515,320
Germany Imports Exports	26,073,331 30,516,281	26,992,559 32,736,651	31,181,667 38,542,790	35,799,758 42,742,300	40,115,450 47,168,852
Belgium Imports B Exports	17,383,776 13,594,966	17,545,169 11,934,653	23,502,603 14,846,307	27,751,288 14,818,923	29,217,560 19,284,791
Holland Imports ) Exports	25,900,924	28,419,944	31,381,023	35,481,059	37,371,702
	16,445,992	11,272,258	14,931,090	14516,887	16,303,884
Denmark, Faeroe, Iceland, SImports	7,753,389	9,799,328	13,187,757	15,606,991	19,427,483
Greenland. .. Exports	2,928,006	3,135,122	4724,121	4,609,671	5,705,415
Norway ! Imports	-	3,831,727	5,756,018	5,954,870	6,574,319
Exports		2,532,050	3,910,982	3,712,532	3,835,436
Sweden. ., Imports S Exports	- -	8,784,256 4,036,729	20,635,060 6,495,223	9,827,993 6,016,332	9,245,303 7,114,071
Imports Austria-Hungary Exports	1,728,337 1,694,318	1,221,783 2,149,552	1,375,245 3,157,716	1,488,604 2,603,223	1,208,499 4,333,269
Rumania Imports R )	4,447,159	2,118,505	1,396,639	1689,513	3,395,474
' Exports	2,350,497	944,034	616,287	1,305,658	1,749,996
Greece } Imports	1,962,798	1,241,406	2,227,212	1,328,234	1,613,174
1 Exports	1,235,126	860,193	1,104,196	1,251,642	1,513,744
Italy Imports	3,093,918	3,132,720	3417790	3,324,595	3,634,073
. Exports	8,523,209	6,211,337	9444498	9,787,306	13,274,764
Imports Spain Exports P	12,508,533 5,702,80 57 4	11,314,518 4,052,806	15,882,346 6,333,857	13,858,631 4,841,774	13,362,959 5,352,017
51mports Portugal Exports	2,942,194 2,612,638	2,491,926 1,865,973	3,241,367 2,529,305	2,929,634 2,826,257	2,912,994 2,777,201
Russian Empire Imports ) Exports	23,750,868 8,846,054	24,736,919 10,686,333	21,983,952 16,360,475	33,366,234 14,884,050	36,897,746 28,325,844
Turkey Imports Exports	8,368,8511 7,340,8681	5,630,240 5,566,187	5,657,627 5,372,956	5,491,443 6,979,147	5,085,435 7,789,432
Imports	1,024,993	1,143,382	1,540,526	1,860,313	4,232,716
Japan Exports	4,187,373	4,772,829	9,933,925	9,796,900	8,618,821
Chi } Imports China	4,830,850 2	3343,865 22	2,359,821	2,340,3a63	3,725,502
? Exports	6,763,221 2	5363,536 2	5,634,313	13,298,828 3	8,558,275
Netherlands - India } Imports t Exports	1,223,037 1,675,054	874,313 1,988,479	287,454 2,881,601	2,129,479 3,558,562	2,436,518 3,768,264
} Imports	8,368,851	9,524,507	12,585,578	14,976,188	19,872,288
Egypt . (Exports	3,459,991	3,414,556	6,159,468	8,069,668	8,142,325
U.S.A.	97,283,349	86,548,860	138,789,261	115,573,051	118,269,777
t Exports	46,340,012	44,067,703	37,343,955	47,282,088	59,254,166
Mexico andCentral American Imports	1,863,284	1,443,345	1,144,590	2,138,574	2,595,356
States Exports s	3,050,051	3,035,097	3,149,652	3,022,074	3,179,577
Brazil 51Imports Exports	4,350,675 7,795,073	3,614,155 7,643,739	5,946,547 6,156,600	8,109,208 6,916,617	11,271,890 8,809,226
Argentina } Imports 1 Exports	4,129,802 8,530,427	9,084,497 5,480,848	13,080,466 7,438,238	25,034,325 13,383,835	32,528,446 19,202,496
Chile 51mports	3,473,348	3,436,142	4,828,371	6,068,031	6,607,415
Exports	3,365,824	3,454,332	3,535,736	4,782,382	5,054,144
Other countries in Asia Imports 1 Exports	376,969 516,846	344,895 720,350	373,344 684,440	611,096 699,556	1 ,043,280 1,214,041
Africa 51mports Exports	2,345,843 3,262,462	1,683,319 3,052,023	2,503,823 4,686,727	2,901,281 6,063,114	4,538,518 7,783,508
South America. Imports Exports	2,080,466 5,674,325	2,437,294 4,489,592	2,355,802 4,088,731	3,897,595 5,129,351	5,657,201 6,137,748
Other countries Imports	3,206,713	3,447,034	3,190,888	6,289,947	4,260,790
5 Exports	6,605,220	3901,551	6,370,943	8,352,264	7,440,065
Total for British possessionsImports	100,279,852	100,405,592	113,074,557	134,530,683	146,908,244
' Exports	94,522,469	76,138,896	102,083,109	122,712,920	136,318,471
Total for foreign countries } Imports	3 2 4,53 0 ,7 8 3	321,038,151	413,434,242	437,151,191	477,796,713
t Exports	2 33,7 2 9, 6 49	209,693,511	252,290,645	284,883,607	333,206,695
Grand total S Imports Exports	420,691,997 328,252,118	416,689,658 285,832,407	523,075,163 354,373,754	565,019,917 407,596,527	624,704,957 469,525,166

	1895.	1900.	1905.	1909.
	£	£	£
Cotton yarn and manufactures .	6 3,74 6 ,4 6 3	6 9,75 0, 2 79	92,010,985	93,444,799
Iron and steel and manufactures .	19,428,383 2	31,6 2 3,353 2	3 1, 826 43 8	38,192,142
Woollen yarn and manufactures	2 9, 0 94,5 68	24259,7 66	29,916,807	30,917,807
Coal	14,600,326	36,409,614	2 4, 8 59 12 9	37,129,978
Machinery. .. ... .	15,150,522	19.619.784	23,260,326	28,057,643
Chemicals. ... .	11 ,4 6 3,3 0 4	1 3, 1 54,344	1 4,53 6, 8 57.J	16,783,019
Textiles (not cotton or wool) .	11,986,718	12,191,069	1 3, 20 4, 8 99	12,441,525
Metal manufactures (not iron)	5,048,588	6.473,197	8,920,533	8,708,945
Clothing. .. .. .	5,615,594	6,499,086	6,021,242	9,824,125
Leather and leather goods. .	3,833,980	3,875,683	5,660,494	4,242,356
Ships. .. .. .. .	-	8,587,710	5,431,298	5,927,114

An important fact in connexion with the foreign commerce of the United Kingdom is that there has been a steady increase in imports, but there has been no corresponding steady increase in exports of British produce and manufactures. Many industries, which formerly were mainly in British hands, have been developed on the continent of Europe, in America, and to some extent in the East. The movement began in 1872. Up to that time the exports of British home produce had kept on increasing with the imports, although at a lesser rate, and far inferior in aggregate value; but a change took place in the latter year. While the imports continued their upward course, gradually rising from £354,693,624 in 1872 to £375, 1 54,7 0 3 in 1876, the exports of British produce fell from £256,257,347 in 1872 to £ 200,639,204 in 1876. The decline in exports, regular and steady throughout the period, and with a tendency to become more pronounced every year, affected all the principal articles of British Wool. The value of the chief articles and groups of export of home produce are similarly shown: The proportion of imports and exports per head of population of the United Kingdom was: - As regards fluctuations not revealed by the above figures, it may be mentioned that the highest total figures for any one year during the period covered are those for 1907, viz. imports £645,807,942; exports £517,977,167. As to minima within the period, the lowest totals for British possessions were: imports £91,851,534 in 1893, and exports, the figure quoted for 1895; for foreign countries, imports £312,836,644 in 1893, and exports £195,133,239 in 1894; grand totals, imports £ 4 0 4 ,688,178 in 1893, and exports £273,785,867 in 1894. It may be added that the maximal import figures for France within the period are those of 1906 (£53,871,661), for Germany those of 1909, and for the United States those of 1901 (£141,015,465). For exports to the United States the figures for 1909 were highest, to France those of 1907 (£33,5 0 7,544) and to Germany those of 1907 (£56,729,988).

	1895.	1900.	1905.	1909.
	£	£	£	£
Grain and flour	53,077,981	62,992,082	70,057,290	83,107,421
Meat	33,334,171	4 6 ,7 $2 ,579	49,43 1 ,74 8	47,623,428
Other principal articles of food and drink
Butter. .. .. .. .	14,235,230	1 7,45 0 ,435	21,586,622	22,424,962
Sugar. .. .. ... .	17,684,413	1 9, 2 5 6 ,439	1 9,47 1, 811	21,691, 894
Tea. .. .. .. .	10,242,999	10,686,910	9,302,713	11,617,031
Wine	5,448,088	5,192,909	4,072,199	3,746,489
Coffee	3,778,305	2,544,726	2,578,327	2,075,516
Fish (preserved)	2,289,260	2,895,330	2,493,876	2,509,573
Cocoa and chocolate. .. .	1,610,483	2,398,248	2,227,141	903,464
Principal fruits
Apples. .. .. .. .	960,273	1,224,657	2,065,193	2,007,911
Oranges. .. .. .	1,925,415	2,120,790	1,949,496	2,522,491
Bananas. .. .. .	-	548,956	1,770,256	1,752,190
Tobacco. .. ... .	3,353,916	4,799,417	3,721,920	4986,663
Raw materials
Cotton	30,522,016	41,117,308	52,370,878	60,295,049
Wool	28,494,249	2 4, 0 73,9 1 7	26, 6 4 8 ,737	35,041,766
Oils, &c.	18,497,573	2 3,5 6 4, 6 44	23,600,927	31,039,883
Wood and timber.. .	16,372,181	2 7, 8 75,9 1 3	2 3, 2 74, 020	23,591,579
Textile materials excluding cotton and wool. .. ... .	11,378,608	11,553,114	14,511,978	12,127,707
Caoutchouc. .. .. .	3,760,178	6,986,133	9, 6 43, 1 53	14,138,204
Hides and skins	7,360,070	8,465,660	8,084,793	11,617,756
Metallic ores excluding iron. .	4,575,929	5,575,272	7,610,990	8,327,193
Iron ore, &c.. ... .	3,027,196	5,750,947	5,525,575	5,076,131
Manufactured articles
Yarns and textile fabrics .	-	-	39,688,418	29,651,658
Metal, excluding iron and steel .	11,196,315	21,844,683	21,840,696	24,346,328
Leather. .. ... .	11,035,870	11,823,132	11,037,983	11,617,130
Chemicals. .	8,714,360	8,628,279	9,624,638	10,596,593
Iron and steel (not machinery)	-	7,314,696	8 ,5 8 9,4 0 5	7,971,594
Paper. .. .. ... .	2,845,730	4,412,440	5,256,065	5,647,437
Machinery. .. ... .	-	3,475,887	4,537,871	4,438,336

The following table presents the value of the chief groups and articles of importation into the United Kingdom: - Certain omissions are necessary in this table owing to alterations in classification of the returns.

1 Adapted from the Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, where it is specified that the value of new ships and boats, with their machinery, was not included in exports before 1899.

411 to £23,020,719; iron and steel from £35,99 6, 16 7 to £20,737,410; coals from £10,442,321 to £8,904,463; machinery from £8,201,112 to £ 7,210,426; and linen manufactures from £10,956,761 to £7,070,149. The decline during the four years, it will be seen, was greatest in all textile manufactures, and least in coal and machinery.

The table' on p. 602 shows the subsequent movement in value of imports from other countries to the United Kingdom, and of exports to other countries from the United Kingdom, at quinquennial intervals; bullion and specie being excluded.

For the purpose of showing the relative importance of British and Irish ports falling below the list, the following figures may be quoted for 1909 only: Methil, entered 824,375 tons, cleared 1,105,048 tons; Harwich, entered 792,980, cleared 776,595; Grangemouth, entered 988,007, cleared 1,064,217; Burntisland, entered 609,722, cleared 815,507; Bristol, entered858,933, cleared 615,266; Goole, entered 815,177, cleared 817,226; Hartlepool, entered 934, 8 3 6, cleared 730,141; Newhaven, entered 385,313, cleared 376,083; Folkestone, entered 364,524, cleared 359,697; Belfast, entered 490,51 3, cleared 165,670; Borrowstounness (Bo'ness), entered 3 01 ,549, cleared 292,194; Dublin, entered 219,081, cleared 80,868; Cork, entered 146,724, cleared 7413; Maryport and Workington, entered 118,388, cleared 67,494 The figures for Plymouth have included vessels which call "off" the port to embark passengers, &c., by tender only since 1907; for 1909 they were: entered, 1,455,605; cleared, 1,292,244.

The table at the commencement of page 605 shows the total tonnage of vessels entered from and cleared to British possessions and foreign countries at ports in the United Kingdom, and also the nationality of vessels under British and the principal foreign flags. Out of the following totals steam vessels had an aggregate tonnage of 30,604,578 entered and 31,080,481 cleared in 1890, and 64,327,508 entered and 64,968,655 cleared in 1909. The total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared coastwise was as follows: (1890), 47,73 8, 612 entered, Owing to an alteration in classification these figures are not strictly comparable with those for 1905.

Year.	Total Imports.			Exports of British Produce.
	£	s.	d.	£	s. d.
1890	11	4	6	7	0	7
1895	10	12	6	5	1 5	4
1900	12	14	3	7	1	6
1905	13	I	5	7	12	7
1906	13	18	5	8	12	0
1907	14	12	6	9	1 3	3
1908	13	6	3	8	9	4
1909	13	17	7	8	8	1

home produce just enumerated. The value of the cotton manufactures exported sank from L80,164,155 in 1872 to L67,641,268 in 1876; woollen fabrics from £38,493, The tables on p. 604 show the value of unregistered imports of golc_ _ nd silver bullion and specie from British possessions and from foreign countries into the United Kingdom, specifying the most important countries individually..

Table of contents

1 Shipping 2 Authorities 3 Command and Administration 4 Finance

Shipping

The table at foot of p. 604 shows the tonnage of vessels entered from and cleared to British possessions and foreign countries at the principal ports of the United Kingdom.

42,317,876, cleared; (1895), 54,3 0 4,7 0 3 entered, 47,263,791 cleared; (1900), 55,828,569 entered, 54,425,666 cleared; (1905), 60,066,919 entered, 58,670,971 cleared; (1909), 60,566,043 entered, 60,060,979 cleared.

Year.	Sailing Vessels.		Steam Vessels.
	Number.	Gross Tonnage.	Number.	Gross Tonnage.
					1890	14,181	3,055,136	7,410	8,095,370
1895	12,617	3,040,194	8,386	9,952,211
7900	10,773	2,247,228	9,209	11,816,_.4
1905	10,059	1,796,826	10,552	14,883,594
7909	9,392	1,407,469	11,797	16,994,732

The number and gross tonnage of the registered sailing and steam vessels belonging to the United Kingdom were as follows at the end of each of the years named: These figures show not only that steamers have been rapidly taking the place of sailing vessels, but also that large steamers are preferred to small, their average tonnage having increased from 1092 tons in 1895 to 1440 in 1909.

Railways.-The first ordinary roads deserving the name of highways were made about 1660, and canal-building began in 1 Newcastle, North Shields, South Shields.

Blyth was included with North Shields till 1897. 'Swansea included Port Talbot till 1904.

the middle of the following century; but though roads and canals aided materially in raising the commercial and industrial activity of the nation, their fostering agency was very slight compared with that of railways, of which England is the birthplace. The first line of railway for regular passenger service, that from Stockton to Darlington, 14 m. in length, was opened on the 27th of September 1825. The first really important railway was the line from Manchester to Liverpool, opened on the 15th of September 1830, when William Huskisson, M.P., was accidentally killed. It took three years to get the bill for the London-Birmingham railway, which was passed at last in the session of 1833, obtaining the royal assent on the 8th of May. The first sod of the great line was cut at Chalk Farm, London, on the 1st of June 1834. Enormous engineering difficulties had to be overcome, originating not so much from the nature of the ground as from intense public prejudice against the new mode of locomotion. It took over four years to construct the railway from London to Birmingham, at a cost exceeding £4,000,000. Even friends of the railway presaged that such outlay could not by any possibility be remunerative; but the contrary became evident from the moment the line was opened on the 17th of September 1838. All the great railway systems of England sprang into existence within less than ten years after the opening of the London-Birmingham line. Out of this railway grew one of the largest companies, the London & North-Western; while the most extensive system as regards mileage, the Great Western, originated in a line from Paddington, London, to Bristol, for which an act of parliament was obtained in 1835, and which was opened in 1841. In 1836 a bill passed the legislature erecting the "Great North of England" Railway Company, from which was developed the North-Eastern system. A few years later other acts were passed, sanctioning the "Midland Counties" and the "North Midland" lines,. from which the present Midland system grew.

The total length of railways conveying passengers in the United Kingdom at the end of the year 1825 was 40 m., constructed at a cost of £ 120,000. Five years later, at the end of 1830, there were not more than 95 m., built at a cost of £840,925, but at the end of 1835 there were293 m., costingL5,648, 53 1. Thus, in the first five years of railway construction, from 18 25 to 1830, the mileage doubled; while in the second five years, from 1830 to 1835, it trebled. It quintupled in the next five-yearly period, till the end of 1840,;when the total length of miles of railway in the kingdom had come to be 1435, built at a cost of £41,391,634, as represented by the paid-up capital of the various companies. The next five years saw nearly another doubling of length of lines, for at the end of 1845 there were 2441 m. of railway created by a paid-up capital of £88,481,376.

	1 8 90.	1895.	1900.	1905.	1909.
From British possessions	5,368,424	17,61 ,466	11 ,35 ,59 1	38,567,895	40,44212
South Africa. .	1,876,677	8,353,913	378,626	27,286,374	32,912,428
India	443,079	1,929,590	3,637,978	6,850,360	2,170,957
Australia .	1,398,627	5,324,498	6,182,718	3,440,037	2,613,002
Foreign countries	18,199,625	7$,390,863	74,840,282	4,949,335	14,227,617
Total .	23,568,049	36,009,329	26,190,873	43,5 1 7, 2 3 0	54,691,829

Silver.

	1890.	1895.	7900.	1905.	7909.
From British possessions .	J50,094	282,269	264,676	412,756	667,619
Foreign countries	10,035,565	10,384,063	13,057,624	12,579,258	1 1,147,270
United States of America	4,057,709	8,082,925	11,459,612	9,784,828	9,971,396
Total	10,385,659	10,666,332	13,322,300	12,992,014	11,814,889

	1890.	1895.	1900.	1905.	7909.
Entered London. Cleared	Tons. 7,7 08 ,7 0 5	Tons. 8 ,435, 6 7 6	Tons. 9,580,854	Tons. 10,814,115	Tons. 11,605,698
Liverpool and Bir- Entered	5,772,062 5,7 82 ,35 1	6,110,325 5,59 8 ,34 1	7,479, 0 0 8 6,001,563	7,913,115 7,806,844	8,622,316 7,747,994
kenhead Cleared	5, 1 59,45 0	4, 88 3, 1 99	5,77 8, 11 4	6,932,687	6,593,094
Cardiff Entered	3, 1 73, 6 99	3,739, 8 5 6	5, 1 3 2 ,5 2 3	4,337,7 20	5,771,476
Cleared	5, 6 4 1 ,5 11	6 ,5 00 ,5 10	7, 6 3 6 ,7 1 7	7.47 6, 8 79	8,888,756
Tyne Ports 1 Entered Cleared	3,401,216 5,010,098	3,292,624 4,822,648	3, 8 97, 1 4 2 4,894,157	4,058,618 5,158,899	5,700,405 6,899,023
Southampton Entered Cleared	888,352 813,133	1,420,531 1 ,3 28 ,393	1,613,913 1 ,395,4 86	2,087,277 1,888,030	4,279,052 4,108,063
Hull iEntered Cleared	1 ,997, 1 3 8 1,655,996	2, 1 5 0, 6 54 1,612,385	2,666,598 2,274,137	2,546,064 2,102,160	3,517,953 3,164,156
Glasgow Entered Cleared	1,121,700 1,697,662	1, 18 4,537 1,911,739	1 ,454, 860 2,229,574	1, 6 35, 60 9 2,836,462	1,917,144 3,160,916
Newport Entered Cleared	920,560 1 ,3 16 ,43 0	871,886 1 ,374, 2 37	1,092,068 1 ,5 11 ,3 8 3	1,250,192 1 ,773, 161	1,548,258 2,105,509
Dover Entered Cleared	789,846 767,724	742,940 734,334	973,074 964,476	2,928,741 2 ,944,774	1,636,530 1,631,751
Middlesbrough Entered Cleared	833,562 623,967	953,985 875,059	1,096,130 882,156	1,227,017 1,092,958	1,728,385 1,586,148
Blyth 2. . Entered Cleared	-	-	1,525,727	1,623,00 1,6 94,00 3	1,292,353 ,836,503
Sunderland Entered Cleared	725,859 956,266	730,396 1,002,552	800,027 1,163,310	981,606 1 ,344,999	1,357,201 1,676,777
Swansea 3 Entered Cleared	565,644 858,215	580,481 931,588	1,018, 148 1 ,4 2 7,9 0 3	635,458 1 ,335, 1 34	1,020,480 1,719,654
Leith. Entered Cleared	706,491 626,573	887,842 750,257	1,055,291 9$2,309	1,124,281 1, 08 5,734	1,344,898 1,314,361
Grimsby Entered Cleared	663,513 689,165	763,892 829,837	931,238 960,236	1, 0 94,53 1 1, 0 74,495	1,289,476 1,334,566
Manchester Entered Cleared	-	317,625 288,001	787,497 595,757	1, 1 33,0 0 3 970,620	1,275,937 1,067,835

			1890.	1895,	1900.	1905,	1909..
			Tons.	Tons.	Tons.	Tons.	Tons.
Total. .	. .	. Entered	36,835,712	40,001,691	49,9 1 3, 22 3	55, 62 3,974	66,309,519
		(Cleared	37,44 8, 1 57	4 0 ,537,4 8 3	5 0, 182 ,439	56,416,760	66,958,163
British		Entered - Cleared	26 ,777,955 2 7, 1 95, 1 57	2 9, 1 75, 282 2 9,5 16, 6 44	3 2, 1 35,745 32,147,060	35, 200, 8 69 35,762,218	39,661,660 40.102,311
German		S Entered	2, 161 ,53 6	1 ,94 0 ,35 8	2,966,426	4,298,769	6,766,591
		Cleared	2,230,419	1,948,284	3,060,782	4,346,284	6,754,026
Norwegian		Entered	2 ,477,93 6	2, 60 4, 0 49	3, 8 39, 602	3,392,216	4,315,870
		Cleared	2,522,865	2, 660 ,795	3,821,969	3,387,152	4,308,221
Swedish		Entered 3	783,045	990,728	1,788,844	2,114,028	2,456,144
		Cleared	792,767	1,003,634	1,8 08 ,354	2,117,717	2,478,534
Danish		Entered Cleared	901,819 952,183	961,730 990,006	1,735,288 1 ,759,5 0 9	2,106,717 2,123,830	2,889,986 2,886,731
Dutch		Entered Cleared	952,695 948,196	1,150,098 1,156,936	1,600,317 1,613,45 0	1,949,161 1 ,957, 10 7	2,272,075 2,294,584
French		Entered Cleared	834,039 852,935	929,250 909,493	1,417,128 1 ,4 0 5, 2 47	1 ,574,395 1 ,5 8 7,7 62	1,640,466 1,663,197
Spanish		Entered ' ? Cleared	631,629 644,431	645,210 682,184	1,309,915 1,399,332	1,462,488 1,471,300	1,477,199 1,499,319
Belgian		S Entered Cleared	449,470 423,639	551,513 537,969	804,472 797,134	936,918 920,597	1,355,135 1,357,668
		Entered	146,721	323,700	282,152	664,360	274,241
U.S.A.		Cleared	145,212	332,825	277,400	675,096	280,464

Not far from a fresh trebling took place in the course of the next quinquennial period, and at the end of 1850 there were 6621 m. of railways, constructed at the cost of £ 240,270,745.

The construction of railways (especially in England) was undertaken originally by a vast number of small companies, each under separate acts of parliament. But it was soon discovered that there could be neither harmonious nor profitable working of a great many systems, and this led to a series of amalgamations (see under England; Ireland; Scotland).

The number of passengers carried per mile in 1832 was 4860, but before ten more years were past the number of passengers had not only increased in proportion with the opening of new lines, but more than doubled per mile, and, instead of being under 5000, had in 1842 come to be near 12,000. In 1861 the number of passengers carried per mile of railway was 15,988; in 1876 it was 31,928; and in 1900 it was over 52,000.

The two following tables illustrate the further development of railways in the United Kingdom: In 1909 the percentage of working expenses to total receipts was 63 in England and Wales, 57 in Scotland and 62 in Ireland.

Tramways.-An act passed in 1870 to facilitate the construction of tramways throughout the country marks the beginning of their modern development. It led to the laying down of "street railways" in many large towns. According to a return laid before the House of Commons in the session of 1878, the total length of tramways authorized by parliament up to the 30th of June 1877 was 363 m., and the total length opened for traffic 213 m., comprising 125 m. of double lines and 88 m. of single lines. On the 30th of June 1900 there were in the United Kingdom 70 tramway undertakings with 585 m. of line belonging to local authorities, while 107 with 592 m. of line belonged to other than local authorities. The capital ex penditure on the former amounted to £10,203,604, on the latter to £11,532,384.

Years J ending une 30.	Miles open.	Paid-up Capital.	Gross Receipts.	Working Expenses.	Passengers carried during year.
1890	948	13,502,026	3,214,743	2,402,800	526,369,328
18 95	982	14,111,521	3,733,690	2,878,490	661,760,461
1900	1117	20,582,692	5,445, 62 9	4, 0 75,35 2	1,065,374,347
1905	2117	51,501,410	9,917,026	6,565,049	2,068,913,226
1909	2526	7 0 ,345, 1 55	12, 6 4 1 ,437	8, 0 45, 6 5 8	2,659,981,136

The development of tramway enterprise in the United Kingdom, as shown by the mileage open, the paid-up capital, gross receipts, working expenses and number of passengers carried, has been as follows 1900, 1,749,804 * Excluding season-ticket holders, whose number in 1880 was 502,174; in and in England and Wales alone, in 1880, 449, 82 3; in 1900, 1,610,754.

Year.	Mileage.	Paid-up Capital.	Number of Passengers.*	Traffic Receipts.		Percentage of Working Expenses to Receipts.
				Total.	Per Mile.
		£		£	£
1860	10,433	348,130,127	163,435,678	27,766,622	2,661	47
1865	1 3, 2 9 8	455,47 8, 1 43	251,862,715	35,890,116	2,701	48
1870	1 5,537	5 2 9,9 08, 6 73	33 6 ,545,397	43,4 1 7, 0 7 0	2 ,794	48
1875	16,658	630,223,494	5 06 ,975, 2 34	5 8 ,9 82 ,753	3,54 1	54
1880	17,933	728,316,848	603,885,025	62,961,767	3,511	51
1885	19,169	815,858,055	6 97, 21 3, 0 3 1	66, 6 44,9 6 7	3,477	53
1890	20,073	897,472,026	81 7,744, 0 4 6	7 6 ,54 8 ,347	3, 81 3	54
1895	21,174	1,001,110,221	929,770,909	$1 ,39 6, 0 47	3, 8 44	56
1900	21,855	1,176,001,890	1,142,276,686	98,854,552	4,5 2 3	62
1905	22,847	1,272,601,000	1,199,022,102	105,131,709	4,601	62
1909	23,280	1,314,406,000	1,265,081,000	110,682,266	4,754	62

		1909.
		England and Wales.	Scotland.	Ireland.
Mileage of Double or more lines . Single lines		10,746 5,299	1,580 2,264	670 2,721
		£	£	£
	Passenger traffic. .	43,9 1 9,7 02	5,080,603	2,204,756
Traffic	Total goods traffic.. .	5 0, 6 47,4 26	6,836,920	1,992,859
Receipts	Including- Minerals .	24,837,682	3,286,074	281,63}
	General merchandise .	2 4, 88 5,494	3, 2 99,5 88	1,392,600
Working expenditure		65,169,619	7,200,173	2,667,796
Net receipts .		37,979,313	5,4 8 9,579	1,667,572

Authorities

-The following publications relating to the United Kingdom are issued annually in London (unless otherwise stated): Finance Accounts; Financial Estimates; Return showing Revenue and Expenditure (England, Scotland and Ireland); National Debt Accounts; National Debt during 60 Years; Local Taxation Returns; Army Estimates; Army Accounts; Army List (quarterly); Navy Estimates; Navy List (quarterly); Royal Commission on Agriculture, Reports (1896); Mineral Statistics; Reports of Inspectors of Mines; Reports on Factories and Workshops; Reports of Inspectors of Fisheries; Return of Fish conveyed inland by rail; Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom; Statement of the Shipping and Navigation of the United Kingdom; Report of the Postmaster-General. Vital statistics: Reports of the registrars-general respectively for England, for Scotland (Edinburgh), for Ireland (Dublin); Census Reports (decennial, 1901, &c.), ditto; Education: Reports of the Board of Education for England and Wales; Report of the Commissioners of National Education in Ireland; Report of the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland; Electoral Statistics (London, 1905); Statistical Tables relating to Emigration and Immigration; Judicial Statistics of England and Wales, of Scotland, of Ireland; Local Government Reports, ditto; Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, in which the most important statistics are summarized for each of the fifteen years preceding the year of issue. Among books may be mentioned the following: Sir W. R. Anson, The Law and Custom of the Constitution (2 vols., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1892-1896); W. J. Ashley (edited by), British Industries (London, 1902); E. G. Boutmy, Le De'veloppement de la constitution et de la societe politique en Angleterre (2nd ed., Paris, 1897). Of this there is an English translation (from 1st ed.) In the next table further details are given for 1909: by I. M. Eaden (London, 1891); Etudes de droit constitutionel, France, Angleterre, Etats-Unis (Paris, 1885; Eng. trans. by E. M. Dicey, London, 1891); Brassey, The Naval Annual (Portsmouth, 1886 onwards); Cassell's Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1899); W. L. Clowes and other writers, History of the Royal Navy (London, 1896-1901); W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce (4th ed., London, 1904); A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (5th ed., London, 1897); R. Donald (edited by) Municipal Year-book (London, annual); S. Eardley-Wilmot, Our Fleet To-day and its Development during the Last Half Century (London, 1900); Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army (London, 1906); R. Giffen, Essays in Finance (London, 1880 and 1886); R. von Gneist, Das englische Parlament in tausendj¢hringen Wandel r ungen (Berlin, 1885; translated into English by A. H. Keane, History of the English Parliament, London, 1889); Englische Verfassungsgeschichte (Berlin, 1882; Eng. trans. by P. A. Ashworth, London, 5891); E. Hull, The Coalfields of Great Britain (London, 1905); J. E. T. Rogers, Industrial and Commercial History of England (London, 1892); J. Holt Schooling, The British Trade Book (London, 1908); Sir J. R. Seeley, The Growth of British Policy (2 vols., London, 1895); H. Taylor, The Origin and Growth of the English Constitution (2 vols., London, 1889-1899); A. Todd, Parliamentary Government in England (new ed., revised by S. Walpole, 2 vols., London, 1892).

British Military Forces. The forces of the British Crown may be classed as (a) the regular, or general service, army, together with the Indian army; and (b) the home territorial force; while there are also certain forces controlled by the governments of the various selfgoverning dominions. The home government raises, pays and controls the regular army, its reserves, the territorial force, and some few details such as the militia of the smaller possessions, Indian native battalions employed on imperial service out of India, &c. But the cost of that portion of the regular army which is in India is borne by the Indian government, which is not the case with the regulars serving in other colonies or in the dominions. Consequently the Indian government, unlike the colonial governments, can within limits dispose of the British paid regulars within its sphere.

Regular Arnzy.-The duties of the regular army are to garrison India and overseas colonies, to garrison Great Britain and Ireland, and to find expeditionary forces of greater or less strength for war in Europe or elsewhere. The principles upon which the reorganization of1905-1908was based are: (a) that in peace the army at home must be maintained at such an effective standard that all necessary drafts for the army abroad shall be forthcoming, without undue depletion of the army at home; (b) the home army on mobilization for service should be brought up to war strength by the recall of reservists in sufficient, but not too great, numbers; (c) the wastage of a campaign shall be made good by drafts partly from the remaining army reserve, but above all from the militia, now converted into the special reserve; and (d) the volunteers and yeomanry, reorganized into the territorial force, shall be responsible, with little regular help, for the defence of the home country, thus freeing the regular army at home for general service. The first of these conditions entirely, the second largely, and even indirectly the third and fourth depend upon the recruiting, establishments and terms of service of the regular army. These last are a compromise between the opposite needs of short service, producing large reserves, and long service, which minimizes the seatransport of drafts; they are also influenced by the state of the labour market at any given moment, as recruiting is voluntary. To enable the authorities to deal with these conditions, the secretary of state for war may without special legislation vary the terms of enlistment, not only in general but also for the various arms and branches.

After the South African War, several different terms were tried for the line infantry and cavalry, but these experiments proved that the terms formerly prevailing, viz. 7 years with the colours and 5 in the reserve, were the most convenient. In the Horse and Field Artillery the term is 6 and 6, in the Household Cavalry and the Garrison Artillery 8 and 4, and in the Foot Guards 3 and 9. Engineers and other specialists are recruited on various terms. A certain number, again varying from year to year, almost from month to month, are allowed to engage for the full 12 years with the colours (long service). Thus in 1907-1908, 1551 men were serving on a 12-year colour engagement, 24,856 on a term of 7 years colours and 5 reserve, 3589 on a 6 and 6 term, 3449 on 3 and 9 engagement, 45 2 9 for other terms, out of a total of 37,974 recruits or soldiers signing fresh engagements.

				Percentage
Year.	Recruits offering.	Recruits approved.	Percentage approved.	of Recruits to Strength of Army.
Oct. 1903-Oct. 1904	89,824	42,041	46.8	14.6
Oct. 1904-Oct. 5905	81,045	35,551	43'9	1305
Oct. 1905-Oct. 1906	8 3, 1 55	36,380	43'5	14
Oct. 1906-Oct. 1907	7 2, 8 55	34,710	47'6	14.25
Oct. 1907-Oct. 1908	77,526	37,222	47'9	54.05
Oct. 1908-Oct. 1909	75, 6 3 0	33,766	44.7	13.6

	Strength.	Establishment.
Staff and departments, &c.	3,293	3,392
On regimental strength
Home	128,412	130,714
India	77,866	76,009
Colonies	47,127	44,981
Total. ... .	253,004	253,405

The following figures show the inflow of recruits: The army consists of about 250,000 officers and men of the regular forces on full pay, distributed (October 1909) as follows: By units, it is composed of 3 regiments of Household Cavalry, 7 regiments of Dragoon Guards, 3 of Dragoons, 6 of Lancers and 12 of Hussars (total cavalry, 31 regiments); 4 regiments of Foot Guards of 9 battalions, 51 English and Welsh, to Scottish and 8 Irish line infantry and rifle regiments (total infantry, 149 battalions); the Royal Regiment of Artillery, divided into Royal Horse and Field Artillery, and Royal Garrison Artillery-the R.H.A. consisting of 28 batteries, the R.F.A. of 150 batteries, the R.G.A. of loo companies (told off to garrisons, siege train and heavy field batteries) and 8 batteries mountain guns; the Corps of Royal Engineers, organized into mounted field troops, field companies, fortress, telegraph, railway, searchlight, balloon, wireless companies and bridging train; the Army Service Corps, divided into transport, supply, mechanical-transport and other companies and sections; the Royal Army Medical Corps of 35 companies; the Army Ordnance Corps; the Army Veterinary Corps; Army Post Office Corps (formed on mobilization only) and Army Pay Corps.

In addition, there are the following colonial troops under the home government :-West India Regiment, 2 battalions; Royal Malta Artillery, 2 garrison companies; West African Frontier Force, 2 batteries, 1 garrison company, 1 battalion M.I., 6 battalions infantry; and King's African Rifles (East Africa), 5 battalions, besides the Indian troops in imperial services.

The army reserve, formed of men who have served wit h the colours, consists of four classes. Sections A, B and C consist of men who are fulfilling the reserve portion of their original twelve years' liability. Section A, which receives extra allowances, is liable to be called up in a minor emergency; section B is the general reserve; section C, also part of the general reserve, consists of men who have been sent to the reserve prematurely; section D (which is often suspended) consists of men who at the expiry of their twelve years' engagement undertake a further four years' reserve liability.

Strength and Ages of the Army Reserve (Oct. 1, 1909).

Section.				A.	B C.	D.	Total.
Infantry .				4,051	70,998	9,608	84,657
Cavalry .				-	8,894	1,229	10,123
R.H.				604	1 3, 8 49	1,571	16,024
K.G.A.. .	.			-	7,748	642	8,189
R.E.. .	.			415	4,200	406	5,021
Others. .	.	.	.	427	9,356	558	10,341
				5,497	11 5, 0 45	14,014	134,556
Under 30. .	.			98,146		201	98,347
3 3 35				21,730		10,758	32,488
Over 35. .	.	.	.	666		3,055	3,721
				120,542		14,014	134,556

The special reserve, converted from the militia, consists of infantry, field and garrison artillery, the Irish Horse (late Yeomanry), engineers, and a few A.S.C. and R.A.M.C. Its object is to make good on mobilization deficiencies (so far as they may exist of ter the calling in of the army reserve) in the expeditionary or regular forces, and to repair the losses of a campaign. It also acts as a feeder to the regular army. Its establishment and strength on the 1st of October 1909 were 90,664 and 69,954 respectively, without counting in the latter figure 6172 militia and militia reserve men not then absorbed into the new organization.

The war organization of the home establishment, with its general and special reserves, aimed at the mobilization and despatch overseas of 6 army divisions, each of 12 battalions in 3 brigades; 9 field batteries in 3 brigades, a brigade of 3 field howitzer batteries, and a heavy battery, each with the appropriate ammunition columns; 2 field companies and telegraph company R.E.; 2 companies mounted infantry; and ambulances, columns and parks. In addition to these 6 divisions, there are "army troops" at the disposal of the commander-in-chief, consisting of two mixed "mounted brigades" (cavalry, mounted infantry, and horse artillery) serving as the "protective cavalry," and of various technical troops, such as balloon companies and bridging train. The "strategical" cavalry is a division of 4 brigades (12 regiments or 36 squadrons), with 2 brigades (4 batteries) of horse artillery, 4 "field troops" and wireless company R.E., and ambulances and supply columns. The peace organization of the regular forces at home conforms to the prospective war organization. In addition to the field army itself, various lines of communication troops are sent abroad on mobilization. These number some 20,000 men, the field army about 135,000, with 492 field guns, 7561 other vehicles and 60,769 horses and mules.

But the first condition of employing all the home regulars abroad is perfect security at home. Thus the pivot of the Haldane system is the organization of the Territorial Force as a completely self-contained army. The higher organization - which the volunteers (q.v.) and yeomanry (q.v.) never possessed - varies only slightly from that in vogue in the regular army. The second line army consists of 14 mixed mounted brigades as protective cavalry and 14 army divisions of much the same combatant strength as the regular divisions, the only important variation being that the artillery consists of 4-gun instead of 6-gun batteries. In addition to the divisions and mounted brigades there are "army troops," of which the most important component is the cyclist battalions, recruited in the different coast counties and specially organized as a first line of opposition to an invader. Affiliated to the territorial force are officers' training corps, cadets, "veteran reserves," and some of the other organizations mentioned below, the Haldane scheme having as its express object the utilization of every sort of contribution to national defence, whether combatant or non-combatant, on a voluntary basis.

The conditions of enlistment and reserve in the territorial force are a four years' engagement (former yeomen and volunteers being however allowed to extend for one year at a time if they desire to do so), within each year a consecutive training in camp of 14-18 days and a number of "drills" (attendances at company and battalion parades) that varies with the branch and the year of service. The minimum is practically always exceeded, and trebled or quadrupled in the case of the more enthusiastic men, and the chief difficulty with which the officers responsible for training have to contend is the fact that no man can be compelled to attend on any particular occasion. Attendance at the camp training, in so far as the claims of men's civil employment do not infringe upon it, is compulsory, and takes place at one time for all - generally the first half of August.

The army troops, divisions and mounted brigades consist of 56 regiments of yeomanry; 14 batteries and 14 ammunition columns R.H.A., 151 batteries and 55 ammunition columns R.F.A., 3 mountain batteries and ammunition column, and 14 heavy batteries and ammunition columns R.G.A.; 28 field companies, 29 telegraph companies, railway battalion, &c., R.E.; 204 battalions infantry (including to of cyclists, the Honourable Artillery Company, and certain corps of the Officers' Training Corps training as territorials); 60 units A.S.C.; 56 field ambulances, 23 general hospitals and 2 sanitary companies R.A.M.C. Told off to the defended seaports are 16 groups of garrison artillery companies and 58 fortress and electric light companies R.E.

Arm or Branch.	Establishment.		Strength.
	Officers.	Men.	Officers.	Men.
Yeomanry. .. .	1,345	2 4,7 66	1,193	24,219
R.H. & F.A.. .. .	1,211	32,945	1,015	29,658
R.G.A.. ... .	450	11 ,455	406	9,356
R.E.. ... ..	571	14,660	525	12,896
Infantry	5,679	1 95, 2 97	5, 06 4	173,670
A.S.C. .... .	322	8,562	277	7,577
R.A.M.C.. .. .	1,438	13,664	1,151	11,849
A.V.C.. .. ..	198	14	95	-
Total.. .	11,214	301,363	9,726'	269,225

Establishment and Strength (April I, 1910) The Territorial Force is enlisted to serve at home, but individuals and whole corps may volunteer for service abroad in war if called upon. A register is kept of those who accept this liability beforehand, and about 6000 officers and men had joined it in April 1910.

The force is trained, commanded and inspected exclusively by the military authorities, the regular army finding the higher commanders and staffs. But in accordance both with the growing tendency to separate command and administration and with the desire to enlist local sympathies and utilize local resources, "associations," partly of civilian, partly of military members, were formed in every county and charged by statute with all matters relating to the enlistment, service and discharge of the county's quota in the force, finance (other than pay, &c. in camp), buildings, ownership of regimental property, &c. To these duties of county associations are added that of supervising and administering cadet corps of all sorts (other than officers' training corps), and that of providing the extra horses required on mobilization, not only by the territorial force, but by the expeditionary force as well.

There are several groups of more or less military character which are for various reasons outside war office control. These are: (a) boy's brigades - the Church Lads' Brigade, the London Diocesan Brigade, the Jewish Lads' Brigade, &c.; (b) the Legion of Frontiersmen, an organization intended to enroll for "irregular" service men with colonial or frontier experience; (c) rifle clubs, which exist solely for rifle practice, and have no military liabilities; (d) boy scouts, an organization founded in 1908 by Lieut.-General Sir R. S. S. Baden-Powell.

Command and Administration

The secretary of state for war is the head of the army council, which comprises the heads of departments and is the chief executive authority. These departments (see Staff) are: the general staff; the adjutantgeneral's department; the quartermaster-general's department; the department of the master-general of the ordnance; the civil member's department; and the finance member's department. In addition to these departments, whose heads form the army council itself, there is the very important department of the inspector-general of the forces, whose duties are to ensure by inspection the maintenance of military efficiency and an adequate standard of instruction, &c. This department is thus in the main a complement of the general staff branch. In 1910 the commander-in-chief in the Mediterran